Term
| why is breathing essential for life? is Oxygen stored anywhere in the body? |
|
Definition
| it is necessary for metabolic reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules & produce ATP. No oxygen is not stored in the body. |
|
|
Term
| where does CO2 come from? what happens if it is allowed to accumulate in body tissues? |
|
Definition
| released as a bi-product from cellular metabolism. Excessive amounts of CO2 produces acidity that can be toxic to cells |
|
|
Term
| what is the general function of the conducting portion of the respiratory system? and what structures is it composed of? |
|
Definition
| filters warm and moisten air & conduct it into the lungs. nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, & terminal bronchioles. |
|
|
Term
| what is the general function of the respiratory portion of the respiratory system? and what structures is it composed of? |
|
Definition
| main site of gas exchange between air and blood. respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli. |
|
|
Term
| what is the primary function of the larynx? |
|
Definition
| "voicebox". the arytenoid cartilages influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the vocal folds (truse vocal cords) in the larynx, plus the space between them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a large leaf shaped piece of cartilage lying on top of the larynx attached to the thyroid cartilage. Its unattached portion is free to move up and down to cover the glottis during swallowing. |
|
|
Term
| during swallowing, what mechanism prevents food from entering the repiratory passages? |
|
Definition
| the closing of the larync by way of the epiglottis forming a lid over the glottis. |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of the cartilage in the trachea and other respiratory passageways? |
|
Definition
| provides stable structure & keeps them open |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of mucus, cilia, and phagocytes in the respiratory tract? |
|
Definition
| helps trap dust, move mucus & debris, and removes dust & debris. |
|
|
Term
| the microscopic air sacs of the lungs are called _____. what is their function? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what structural features of the alveoli promote gas exchange? |
|
Definition
| thin walls, simple squamous epithelium |
|
|
Term
| what are the 4 layers of the respiratory membrane through which gases must diffuse from alveolar space to capillary lumen, or vice versa. |
|
Definition
1. alveolar wall
2. epithelial basement membrane
3. capillary basement membrane
4. capillary epithelium |
|
|
Term
| what is the differnece in functino between type I and type II alveolar cells? |
|
Definition
type I - main site of gas exchange
type II - secrete alveolar fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells, and the air moist. |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of alveolar macrophages (dust cells)? |
|
Definition
| to remove fine dust particles & other debris from the alveolar spaces |
|
|
Term
| which of the different structures of the respiratory system is an air passageway only? gas exchange only? |
|
Definition
air - all but pharynx
gas - alveoli |
|
|
Term
| what is bronchodilation? will this increase or decrease resistance to airflow? |
|
Definition
| airway opening, decrease resistance to airflow |
|
|
Term
| what is bronchoconstriction? will this increase or decrease resistance to airflow? |
|
Definition
| airway obstruction, increase resistance to airflow |
|
|
Term
| which condition (bronchodilation or broncoconstriction)is characteristic of asthma? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic stimulation (causes b-dilation, or b-constriction) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| histamine (causes b-dilation or b-constriction) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| epinephrine (causes b-dilation or b-constriction) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| beta-2 adrenergic agonist drugs (causes b-dilation or b-constriction) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| arrange the respiratory tract structures in the proper order. |
|
Definition
| external nares--nasal cavity--internal nares--nasopharynx--oropharynx--laryngopharynx--epiglottis--larynx--trachea--bronchial tree--primary bronchus--bronchioles--alveoli |
|
|
Term
| which of the respiratory tract structures are found inside the lungs? |
|
Definition
| alveoli, bronchial tree, bronchioles, primary bronchus |
|
|
Term
| as air moves through all of the respiratory tract passageways, it is exposed to the epithelial lining. what is the effect of this lining on the incoming air? |
|
Definition
| traps dust & foreign substances, phagocytizes or expels warm & moistened air |
|
|
Term
| the tapered superior end of each lung is its ______. the broad inferior end is the ______. the identation where the primary bronchus, pulmonary artery and veins, and nerves enter each lung is the _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the left lung is divided by the _______ fissure into 2 lobes. Name them. |
|
Definition
| oblique. superior & inferior |
|
|
Term
| for the right lung, how many lobes and fissures are there? name them. |
|
Definition
2 fissures - oblique & horizontal
3 lobes - superior, inferior, middle |
|
|
Term
| each lobe of the lung is subdivided by connective tissue partitions into ten __________ segments, each supplied by a _________. |
|
Definition
| bronchopulmonary, tertiary bronchi. |
|
|
Term
| what is lung compliance? why is it important? |
|
Definition
| compliance refers to how much effort is required to stretch the lungs & chest wall. Its important because if compliance is low, they resist expansion and can cause many pulmonary conditions. |
|
|
Term
| what two major factors contribute to lung compliance? |
|
Definition
| elasticity & surface tension |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of pulmonary surfactant? what happens to premature babies who have inadequate surfactant? what is this condition called? |
|
Definition
| lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendancy of alveoli to collapse. Respiratory Distress Syndrome - surface tension of alveolar fluid is greatly increased, so that many alveoli collapse at the end of each exhalation |
|
|
Term
| the natural elactic recoil of the lungs tend to cause them to collapse. what two forces prevent their collapse? |
|
Definition
1. transpulmonary pressure
2. surface tension of alveolar fluid |
|
|
Term
| in the condition called "pneumothorax", air enters the pleural cavity and causes a lung to collapse. what causes this to happen? |
|
Definition
| the intra pleural pressure is lost causing the suction (to the visceral pleura) to be lost. air in the pleural cavity |
|
|
Term
| volume of air exchanged in a normal breath |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| moximum volume of air inspired beyond a normal inspiration |
|
Definition
| inspiratory reserve volume |
|
|
Term
| maximum volume of air expired beyong a normal expiration |
|
Definition
| expiratory reserve volume |
|
|
Term
| maximum amount of air that can be exchanged (IRV+TV+ERV) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| maximum amount of air the lungs can hold |
|
Definition
| total lung capacity (RV+VC) |
|
|
Term
| volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is "minute ventilation"? how is it calculated? |
|
Definition
| the total volume of air inhaled & exhaled each minute. respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume |
|
|
Term
| what is the "anatomic dead space"? |
|
Definition
| the conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange |
|
|
Term
| what is the "alveolar ventilation rate"? how is it different from "minute ventilation"? |
|
Definition
| the volume of air per minute that actually reached the respiratory zone. minute involves all air, alveolar is only part of air from minute |
|
|
Term
| what is the "alveolar ventilation rate"? how is it different from "minute ventilation"? |
|
Definition
| the volume of air per minute that actually reached the respiratory zone. minute involves all air, alveolar is only part of air from minute |
|
|
Term
| approximately what percent of total blood oxygen is boundd to hemoglobin? dissolved in plasma? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is hemoglobin bound to oxygen called? to what portion of a hemoglobin does oxygen bind? |
|
Definition
| oxyhemoglobin, iron part of heme group |
|
|
Term
| how many O2 molecules can a single hemoglobin molecule bind? when it binds to the maximum number of o2 molecules, it is said to be ___________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the extent to which O2 binds to hemoglobin (percent saturation) is primarily determined by the _____. as this factor rises, does percent saturation increase or decrease? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the pulmonary capillaries, does the PO2 of the plasma rise of fall? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the pulmonary capillaries, does the percent saturation of hemoglobin rise or fall? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the tissue capillaries, does the PO2 of the plasma rise or fall? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the tissue capillaries, does the percent saturation rise or fall? thus delivering oxygen to the tissues |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at sea level, the PO2 of arterial blood for an average person is_______ and the hemoglobin saturation is approx______% |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the effect of plasma pH on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen? |
|
Definition
| as pH decreases, binding decreases & O2 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin. |
|
|
Term
| what is the effect of plasma PCO2 on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen? |
|
Definition
| as PCO2 rises, hemoglobin releases O2 more readily |
|
|
Term
| what is the effect of temperature on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen? |
|
Definition
| as temperature increases, so does the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| what does pulse oximetry measure? |
|
Definition
| oxygenation of a patients hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between fatal and adult hemoglobin? what advantage does this offer the fetus? |
|
Definition
| they differ in structure & in its affinity for O2. Hb-f has a higher affinity for O2 because it binds BPG less strongly. This is important because the O2 saturation in maternal blood in the placenta is quite low & the fetus might suffer hypoxia were it not for the greater affinity of fetal hemoglobin for O2. |
|
|
Term
| how does carbon monoxide poisoning occur? what is the relationship between CO2 and O2 - binding of hemoglobin? |
|
Definition
| elevated blood levels of CO. They both bind to the heme group of the hemoglobin, but the binding of CO to hemoglobin is over 200 times as strong as the binding of O2. |
|
|
Term
| where is the brain is the medullary rhythmicity area (inspiratory & expiratory areas) located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where in the brain is the pneumotaxic area located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where in the brain is the apneeustic area located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| action potentials generated in the rhythmicity area are conducted down the spinal cord to the _______ nerve to the _______ (muscle), and to the _______nerve to the _______muscles, which then contract, causing inspiration. |
|
Definition
| intercostal, external intercostal, phrenic, diaphragm |
|
|
Term
| what three chemical components of blood are the major regulators of breathing rate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the receptors as a group, called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are the "central" receptors found? the "peripheral" receptors? |
|
Definition
central - medulla oblongata in the CNS
peripheral - aortic bodies in the wall of the arch of the aorta & the carotid bodies in the walls of the carotid arteries |
|
|
Term
| where are the kidneys located? |
|
Definition
| above the waist, between the peritoneum & posterior wall of abdomen |
|
|
Term
| what is the general function of the kidneys? |
|
Definition
| regulate blood volume & composition, help regulate blood pressure, synthesize glucose, release erythropoietin, participate in vit. D synthesis, & excrete wastes by forming urine. |
|
|
Term
| where are the ereters located? |
|
Definition
| between the renal pelvis & bladder |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of the ureters? |
|
Definition
| transport urine from kidneys to the bladder |
|
|
Term
| where is the bladder located? |
|
Definition
male - anterior to the rectum
female - anterior to vagina, inferior to uterus |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of the bladdere? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the urethra located? |
|
Definition
female - posterior to the pubic symphysis
male - prostate--deep muscles of perinum--penis |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of the urethra? |
|
Definition
| discharges urine from the body |
|
|
Term
| the kidneys are describes as __________, that is, they lie posterior to the _________ peritoneum. |
|
Definition
| retroperitoneal, parietal |
|
|
Term
| what is a nephron? how many are in each kidney? why is it called the "functional unit" of the kidney? |
|
Definition
| they are the functional units of the kidneys. about 1 million. microscopic structure that forms urine. |
|
|
Term
| list the vascular components of a nephron in correct order |
|
Definition
| afferent areriole--> glomerulus--> efferent arteriole--> peritubular capillaries |
|
|
Term
| list the tubular components of a nephron in correct order |
|
Definition
| Bowmans capsule--> PCT--> loop of henle--> DCT--> collecting duct |
|
|
Term
| what type of tissue makes up the Bowman's capsule, tubules, and collecting ducts? |
|
Definition
| simple squamous & simple cuboidal |
|
|
Term
| describe the JG cells and what is their function? |
|
Definition
| modified smooth muscle fibers on the wall of afferent arterioles & sometimes efferent arterioles. they secrete renin into the blood and work w/the macula densa to help regulate blood pressure in the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| describe the macula densa and name its function |
|
Definition
| a dense spot of cells of the DCT. provides feedback to the glomerulus. detects the increased delivery of Na+, Cl-, & water and to inhibit release of nitric oxide from cells in JGA. works with the JG cells to help regulate blood pressure in the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between tubular fluid (filtrate) and urine? |
|
Definition
filtrate - product of filtration
urine - filtrate + wastes, drugs, ions |
|
|
Term
| Urine formation: The initial process is ________ in which plasma minus proteins cross the glomerulus to enter the Bowman's capsule. Then, some substances are selectively removed from this fluid and returned to the blood by the process of _______, which results in retention of these substances by the body. Also, a few substances are added to the tubular fluid by the process of _______. Where in the nephron do the last 2 processes occur? |
|
Definition
| glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion. rental tubule/collecting ducts |
|
|
Term
| what are abnormal components of urine? |
|
Definition
| glucose, amino acids, protein (albumin), bilirubin, RBC's, WBC's, ketone bodies, bacteria |
|
|
Term
| what are normal components of urine? |
|
Definition
| water, sodium & other ions, urea, creatinine, uric acid |
|
|
Term
| what are the components of urine that are commonly tested in routine urinalysis? |
|
Definition
| glucose, protein (albumin), bilirubin, RBC's, WBC's, ketone bodies, bacteria |
|
|
Term
| in general, substances can be added to the ECF by _____ or _____. substances can be eliminated from the ECF by _____ or _____. homeostatic control of this balance and hence ECF composition is mostly maintained by controlling _____ by the ______. |
|
Definition
| ingestion, metabolic production. excretion, metabolic use. urinary output, kidneys. |
|
|
Term
| what are sources of water gain? |
|
Definition
| metabolic water, moist foods, ingested liquids |
|
|
Term
| what are sources of water loss? |
|
Definition
| GI tract, lungs, skin, kidneys |
|
|
Term
| why is regulation of ECF volume so significant? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is regulation of ECF concentration (osmolarity) so significant? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If the ECF is too dillute, (hypotonic/hypertonic), water will diffuse (into or out of) cells causing them to _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If the ECF is too concentrated (hypotonic/hypertonic), water will diffuse (into or out of) cells causing them to ______. |
|
Definition
| hypertonic, out of, shrink |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of the total number of dissolved particles per liter of solution |
|
|
Term
| "Increased osmolarity" of the ECF may also be expressed as "ECF is too (concentrated or dilute)", "ECF is (hypertonic/hypotonic)", and noting the condition of (hypernatremia or hyponatremia) |
|
Definition
| concentrated, hypertonic, hypernatremia |
|
|
Term
| control of ECF volume relies primarily on regulating _____ (name substance) retention or excretion; control of ECF concentration relies primarily on regulating ______ (name substance) retention or excretion. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the kidneys regulate ECF concentration by producing a _______ urine when the ECF is too concentrated, and producing a _____ urine when the ECF is too dilute. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the loops of henle pump solute into the surrounding ISF, making it_______. water can osmose into this concentrated ISF only if the wall of the _______ is permeable to water. its permeability if dependent on the presence of the hormone_______. |
|
Definition
| hypertonic, principle cell of collecting duct, ADH |
|
|
Term
| what is the alternate name for ADH? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the major stimulus for release of ADH? |
|
Definition
| increased osmolarily of ECF or decreased blood volume |
|
|
Term
| ADH - location of osmoreceptors and control center? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ADH - site of production? |
|
Definition
| hypothalamus (neurosecretory cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| posterior pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases facultative reabsorption of water, which decreases osmolarity of body fluids |
|
|
Term
| in the presence of ADH, water is (more/less) reabsorbed by the _______ of the kidney. This produces a (dilute/concentrated) urine. This (retention/elimination) of water by the body (dilutes/concentrates) the ECF back toward normal. |
|
Definition
| more, principle cells of collecting ducts, concentrated, retention, dilutes |
|
|
Term
| in the absence of ADH, water is (more/less) reabsorbed by the _______ of the kidney. This produces a (dilute/concentrated) urine. This (retention/elimination) of water by the body (dilute/concentrates) the ECF back toward normal. |
|
Definition
| less, principle cells of collecting ducts, dilute, elimination, concentrates |
|
|
Term
| the amount of ADH and hence water reabsorption varies depending on the ______ of the ECF |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is ECF is too concentrated, osmoreceptors/control center in _______ stimulate the _________ to (increase/decrease) production of _____. which causes (increase/decrease) _______ (response in collecting ducts). and leads to _________ by the colleting ducts and production of (concentrated/dilute) urine, ultimately diluting the ECF back to normal. |
|
Definition
| hypothalamus, post. pituitary, increases, ADH, increases permeability, reabsorption, concentrated |
|
|
Term
| is ECF is too dilute, osmoreceptors/control center in _______ stimulate the ________ to (increase/decrease) production of _____. which causes (increases/decrease) _______(response in collecting ducts), which leads to ______ by the collecting ducts and productions of (concentrated/dilute) urine. ultimately concentrating the ECF back to normal. |
|
Definition
| hypothalamus, post. pituitary, decreases, ADH, decreases permeability, secretion, dilute |
|
|
Term
| to summarize, when ADH is present, the kidneys produce a ______ urine. When ADH is not present, the kidneys produce a _____ urine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| to summarize, the main hormone influencing ECF osmolarity is _____ and it acts of _____ reabsorption by the ____ and ______ of the nephrons. |
|
Definition
| ADH, water, DCT, collecting ducts |
|
|
Term
| hypertonic ECF also stimulates the thirst center located in the _______. increased water intake also helps to (dilute/concentrate) the ECF back to normal. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the pH of the ECF is normally maintained within the range of _______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is acid-base homeostasis vital to life? |
|
Definition
| it is critical to normal cellular function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions & one or more anions. "proton donor" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| removes H+ from a solution "proton acceptor". many bases dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one more more cations. |
|
|
Term
| an acid has a pH of _____. a base has a pH of _____. a pH of ___ is neutral. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid? between a strong base and a weak base? |
|
Definition
| strong acids lower pH more than weak acids because they release H+ more readily & thus contribute more free hydrogen ions. same w/strong bases. |
|
|
Term
| what is the major source of hydrogen ions in the ECF? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the equation that shows the relationship between CO2 and H+? |
|
Definition
| H2O + CO2 ---> H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3- (reversible reaction) |
|
|
Term
| if you increase CO2 in your ECF, will it become more or less acidic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you decrease CO2 in your ECF, will it become more or less acidic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the 3 general mechanisms for removing H+ from the ECF? |
|
Definition
| Buffer System, Exhalation of CO2 (respiratory system), Kidney excretion of H+ (urinary system) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| temporarily binds H+, removing excess H+ from solution. raises pH of body fluids but doesn't remove H+ from the body |
|
|
Term
| Exhalation of CO2 (respiratory system) |
|
Definition
| when more CO2 is exhaled, level of carbonic acid decreases which raises blood pH. |
|
|
Term
| Kidney excretion of H+ (urinary system) |
|
Definition
| slowest mechanism, but the only way to remove acids other than carbonic acid is through excretion in urine. |
|
|
Term
| when the diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract, the size of the thoracic cavity _______, thus_______ intra-alveolar pressure. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| air flows into the lungs whenever intre-alveolar pressure is ______ atmospheric pressure. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| your arterial PCO2 increases from 40 mm to 45 mm. what change in your breathing rate does this cause? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which of the following is/are correct about gas exchange in the lungs? mark as many as apply: A) PCO2 in the alveoli is greater than the CO2 of blood entering the pulmonary capillaries. B)PO2 of the blood entering the pumonary capillaties is less than PO2 of the alveoli, C) oxygen diffuses across the capillary walls from the blood into the alveolar air spaces |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which of these is true about ADH?
A) it is released by the post. pituitary gland. B) increased levels make the loop of henle more permeable to water. C) increased levels cause greater water secretion by the kidneys. D) increased levels cause greater sodium reabsorption by the kidneys |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which of the following is/are true about aldosterone?
A) it is produced by the adrenal medulla. B) increased secretion causes increased tubular reabsorption of sodium. C) increased secretion causes increased tubular reabsorption of potassium. D) all of these |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
you just drank a quart of water. what happened as a result? mark as many as apply.
A) your ECF became hypertonic
B) resulting change in your hydration caused release of ADH
C) you quickly began producing dilute urine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
john has a blood pH of 7.3 and a higher than normal PCO2. what is his acid-base status?
A) metabolic alkalosis
B) respiratory alkalosis
C) metabolic acidosis
D) respiratory acidosis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
assuming normal kidney function, filtrate in Bowman's capsule does NOT contain (mark as many as apply)
A) glucose
B) sodium
C) blood cells
D) plasma proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
glomerular fultration rate is increased by:
A) higher glomerular blood pressure
B) higher osmotic pressure of the blood
C) more active transport across the glomerulus walls
D) increased capsular hydrostatic pressure |
|
Definition
|
|
