Where is Vit B12 absorbed?

Small Intestine via the mucosal cells of the 

distal ileum

The absorption of Vit B12 

depends on...

Glycoprotein

What is the function of the

epiglottis?

Closes the windpipe when swallowing

preventing food/fluid entering airways

Where does CHO (carbohydrate) 

digestion start?

Mouth

Salivary amylase breaks down CHO into simple sugars

Where is bile produced?

Liver

(from cholesterol)

Where is bile stored?

Gall Bladder

What is the function of bile?

• Emulsification of fats
• Aids in the absorption of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K 
• A route of excretions of bilirubin

T/F

A diet completely lacking in fats is good for you?

False

Being one of the 3 macro-nutrients it is essential for supporting a number of the body's functions.

What is meant by chemical digestion?

The breakdown of food in the mouth, stomach and intestines through the use of

acids and enzymes 

(Chemical reactions)

T/F

Chemical digestion is an anabolic process?

False

Anabolic - reactions that convert small molecules into large molecules

Catabolic - reactions that convert large molecules into small molecules

T/F

Bilirubin is a component of bile?

True

(Breakdown product of RBC and is a reddish/yellow pigment made in the liver and excreted in bile)

Give 5 functions of Saliva

1. Lubrication & protection
2. Buffering action & clearance
3. Maintainence of tooth integrity
4. Anti-bacterial & anti-fungal activity
5. Taste and digestion

Which chemical is secreted by the stomach parietal cells?

Gastric Acid (HCl)

What is peristalsis?

Wave-like muscular contractions in tubular structures (oesophagus/intestines) that propels food substances through the digestive tract

T/F

The nervous control of the gastric secretions is controlled by the enteric plexus in the submucosa of the stomach lining.

False

The Entric Nervous System has two plexuses:

1. Myenteric: controls gastro movements

2. Submucosa: controls gastro secretions

Which vitamin is produced in the large intestine?

None are produced.

Special bacteria in the colon synthesis

Vitamin K and some B's

which are passed back to your body tissues

T/F

The small intestine has structures called teniae coli & haustra

False

Teniae Coli & Haustra are structures of the

large structures

Give 5 functions of the liver

• Digestion: of fats via bile production
• Blood Glucose: converts glucose to glycogen
• Storage: Vitamins A, D, E, K, B12 + minerals
• Urea Production: main urine component
• Cholesterol production: required for every cell

Describe the function of the stomach

• Breaks down food materials into simple constituents
• Decreases the pH of food via gastric juices for easy functionality of intestinal enzymes

What hormone is released in the stomach?

Gastrin:

released by G-cells and causes an increase in the secretion of HCl from parietal cells

Which enzyme released by the pancreas is responsible for protein digestion?

There are three:

Trypsin

Chymotrypsin

Carboxypeptidease

Where does the most digestion and absorption occur in the body?

Small intestine

(Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum)

What is the function of the large intestine?

Processes and transports waste material

+

Absorbs water from remaining indigestable food matter

What is the function of the millions of villi in the small intestine?

Absorption of nutrients

Where in the body is fat absorbed?

Small intestine

Where the miscelles act as transport for fatty acids and monoglycerides across the intestinal walls

What is the function of intestinal bacteria?

1. Maintain immunity by identifying and destroying harmful bacteria

2. Synthesis of Vitamin K, B6, B12, folate and niacin

3. Absorbs vital nutrients

What protects the stomach from being digested by the acid content?

Epithelial cells:

which produce and secrete a bi-carbonate rich solution that coats the mucosa

Explain what Oedema is

Swelling from the excessive accumulation of watery fluids in cells

T/F

If glomerular filtration rate is low, substances pass through the renal tubes too quick and is lost in the urine.

False

A reduction of blood through the kidney's filters will reduce hence allowing toxins and wastes to be stored within the body.

Name the structure that transports urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Urether(s)

Name the ion responsible for electrolytes balance & homeostasis in the system.

Sodium ions:

regulates fluid balance in the body

T/F

For the body to remain hydrated the water intake must equal the water lost.

True

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron:

regulates the concentration of water anf soluble substances

Where are the renal pyramids located?

Kidney(s):

Between the renal medulla and the renal capsule

What hormone is produced in the kidney for RBC production?

Erythopoietin

Describe 3 kidney functions

1. Produces Renin which regulates fluid & electrolyte balance by filtration, secretion and reabsorption.

2. Activates both erythopoeitin (RBC production) and vitamin D (which regulates Ca metabolism)

3. Converts waste products into urine so they can be excreted

T/F

Potassium (K) is mostly found in the tissue fluid.

False: 

Mainly located inside the cell

T/F

Sodium (Na) is mostly found in the interstitial fluid.

True:

Mainly in blood and fluid outside of a cell

Which hormone prevents too much water loss in the renal system?

ADH:

Anti-diurectic Hormone

Describe the 3 stages of urine production

1. Filtration: Blood is pumped into the kidneys where glucose, water, sodium and toxins are filtered to remove harmful substances from the bloodstream

2. Reabsorption: Glucose, some of the sodium and water are reabsorbed back into the blood

3. Secretion: Toxins are excreted into the holding area of the urinary tract where they are combined with water and excreted out of the body as urine  

Which muscles are involved in breathing?

Diaphragm (at rest and other times)

External Intercostal (during exercise)

Internal Intercostal (active expiration)

T/F

Boyle's Law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportionate to its pressure

True:

Describes how the pressure of a gas tends to decrease as the volume of a gas increases

How is the trachea adapted to prevent collapse?

It is made of muscle and elastic fibres with rings of cartilage which prevents the tubes of the trachea from collapsing

Fully describe the mechanism of breathing

Consists of 2 stages: Inspiration and expiration 

1. Inspiration: is initiated by the contraction of the diaphragm which raises the ribs and the sternum causing an increase in the volume of thoraic chamber. As the volume increases, the intra-pulmonary pressure decreases as compared to the atmospheric pressure. Thus air enters the lungs.

2. Expiration: As the diaphragm relaxes, the ribs and sternum comes down and the volume of the thoriac chamber decreases. This leads to an increase in intrapulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure and the air from the lungs released out

What process occurs at the alveolar surface?

Diffusion

What is the surfactant?

A fluid secreted by the cells of the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs) that serves to reduce the surface tension of pulmonary fluids 

Which artery brings blood to the liver?

Hepatic Artery

T/F

The oesophagus is an accessory organ of the digestive system?

True:

Does not process food (bolum) but delivers this substance to an organ capable of further digestion.

Explain what mechanical digestion is

The aspects of digestion achieved through a mechanism or movement.

(Mastication - chewing; Peristalsis - involuntary muscular contractions)

T/F

Pancreatic juice is acidic

False:

Alkaline as it has a high concentration of bicarbonate ions

What is the main function of the respiratory system?

Provide Oxygen to and remove Carbon dioxide from circulating blood

T/F

Gaseous exchange starts in the nasal cavity

False:

Gaseous exchange is a process where gases diffuse across a gaseous exchange surface being the alveoli

T/F

Sinuses function to produce mucus and traps bacteria.

True

Where are the vocal cords located?

Within the larynx at the top of the trachea

What function do the cilia serve in the respiration tract?

Protection of the nasal passageways/respiratory tract that filters out dust and other particles

What is the function of the pulmonary veins?

To return oxygenated blood to the left atrium

What is atelectasis?

Partial or complete collaspe of the lung

What molecule is formed when Oxygen binds with its carrier in the blood

Oxyhaemoglobin

What is the effect of high CO2 levels in the blood on pH?

pH decrease, causing blood acidification

Where is the respiratory control center located?

Medulla Oblongata

What is hyperventilation?

Overbreathing:

Occurs when the rate of breathing is greater than demanded by the body and causes CO2 levels to rise

T/F

Low Oxygen levels stimulate the respiratory center in the brain

False:

Once CO2 levels increase, it is detected by the medullary chemoreceptors which stimulates respiratory muscles to increase gas exchanges

T/F

Bronchitis and Emphysema are examples of COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorders).

True

What is the function of renin?

Regulates blood pressure by catalysing the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

Where in the kidneys is renin secreted from?

Juxtaglomerular cells (JG)

What is the function of Angiotensin II?

1. Constrict arterioles thus increasing blood pressure

2. Stimulates ADH secretion from the anterior pituitary

3. Stimulates aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortex

What affect does alcohol have on ADH?

Inhibits the pituitary secretion of ADH

T/F

The main method of controlling potassium levels in the body is through defecation and sweating

False:

Healthy kidneys will regulate potassium levels in the body

T/F

Strong emotions affect the respiratory center through the limbic system and hypothalamus

True

T/F

Cholecystokinin is secreted by the pancreas 

False:

Secreted in the duodenum

Where are sperm produced?

In the Seminiferous tubules located within the testes

Which 3 glands are responsible for semen production?

1. Seminial Vesicles - secretes seminal fluid

2. Prostate Gland - responsible for clear liquid to transport and protect sperm during intercourse 

3. Cowpers Glands - Lubricates urethra

Why are the testes outside the body?

Temperature control:

Temperature of body is not compatible for sperm production

Where are the sperm stored?

Epididymis

T/F

The male urethra only carries urine 

False:

Used for urination and ejaculation

Where does fertilisation occur?

Fallopian tubes

(Sometimes the upper uterus)

What is ovulation?

Expulsion of an ovum from the ovary on day 14 of the menstral cycle

Name the phases of the ovarian cycle

Follicular phase

Luteal phase

What function does the uterus play in female reproduction?

Nurturing the fertilised ovum that develops into a fetus and holds it till ready for birth

If no fertilised ovum, the lining of the uterus sheds resulting in menstration

What are teratogens?

An agent or factor that causes malformation of an embryo

Which hormone is repsonsible for ovulation?

Lutenizing Hormone (LH)

aka Lutropin

What structure is responsible for secreting progesterone and estrogen after ovulation?

Corpus luteum (CL) 

What occurs if an egg is NOT fertilised?

Corpus luteum will dry up and scar tissue will form

Endometrium lining will shed as hormone levels fall and menstration will commence signifying the beginning of the next cycle

What are the genotypes for men and women?

Diploid genome which contains 22 pairs of chromosomes and one allosome pair.

Autosome pairs are labeled with numbers

Allosomes with letters XX or XY

Name the 3 stages of labour

1. Full Cervical Dilation

2. Delivary of Infant

3. Passage of the Placenta

Which hormone declines with menopause?

Estrogen

What are Essential nutrients?

Nutrients required for bodily functions that cannot be either synthesised from the body in significant amount or synthesised at all

Which macro-nutrient provides the highest level of energy per gram?

Fats

What factors do we look for to determine the amount of protein an individual needs?

• Overall energy intake
• Body's need for nitrogen
• Individuals energy & CHO input
• Presence of illness or injury

What are the 3 major essential nutrients in our diet?

Carbohydrates (CHO)

Proteins

Fats

Which ion is responsible for our body's fluid balance?

Sodium (Na+)

What are benign tumors?

Non-cancerous

Mass of cells that lack the ability to invade neighbouring tissues or metastasize.

Malignant disease spreads by means of...

... invading neighbouring tissue

Cells can be damaged by...

(List as many as possible)

Radiation, Smoking, Chemotherapy,

Alcohol, Viruses, In water,

Loud noise, UV, Temperature,

Hypnotonic solution, pH

Name 3 ways the body produces heat

Exercise

Biochemical reactions (mainly in liver)

Cellular respiration

Muscular Contractions (shivering)

Inflammation

T/F

For recessive genes to be expressed the genes have to be heterozygous

False:

Both alleles are exactly the same, homozygous 

Why are recessive disorders passed on more often than dominant disorders?

A person that has one abnormal gene of a recessive disorder is a carrier and whilst they may show no signs, they pass this onto their children.

Most common with parents that are close blood relatives