_______ is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues – it is a branch of pathology.

- Histology

- A trained histologist can recognize over 200 distinct human cell types under the microscope and is able to distinguish a cell from pancreatic tissue as opposed to a cell from the skin.

_______ are a group of cells with a common embryonic origin that function together to carry out specialized activities.

- Tissues

- They include various types, ranging from hard (bone) to semisolid (fat) to liquid (blood)

________ are found where a leak-proof seal is needed between cells. 

- Tight Junctions

- They keep materials from leaking out of organs like the stomach and bladder.

________ make an adhesion belt (like the belt on your pants) that keeps tissues from separating as they stretch and contract.

- Adherens Junctions

- Cadherin is a glycoprotein that forms the belt-like "plaque"

________ act as “spot welds”.  They also use cadherin  glycoprotein (plus intermediate filaments) to hook into the cytoplasm.

- Desmosomes

_________ are half-welds that join cells to the basement membrane.

- Hemidesmosomes

________ are pores (connexons) that allow small substances like ions to pass between cells.  If one of the cells gets sick or dies, these seal like a hatch to prevent damage to other cells.

- Gap Junctions

Of all the cells in the body, they combine to make only 4 basic tissue types. What are they?

- Epithelial 

- Connective 

- Muscular 

- Nervous

________ cover body surfaces and form glands and line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts.

- Epithelial tissues

Describe the arrangement of layers and cell shapes of epithelial tissues.

Arrangement:

-Simple: one layer; all cells in contact with basement membrane

-Pseudostratified: appear to have layers, but in reality all go from the apex to the base

-Stratified: two or more layers; only basal layer in contact with basement membrane

Shape:

-Squamous: flat, wide "paving stone" cells

-Cuboidal: cells as tall as they are wide

-Columnar: cells taller than they are wide

________ protect, support, and bind organs.

- Connective tissues

- Fat is a type of C.T. that stores energy.

- Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all C.T.

________ generate the physical force needed to make body structures move.  They also generate heat used by the body.

- Muscular tissues

________ detect changes in the body and respond by generating nerve impulses.

- Nervous tissues

Tissues of the body develop from three primary germ layers. What are they?

- Endoderm: develop into parts of digestive tract, lungs and respiratory tract, and bladder

- Mesoderm: develops into muscle, bones, cartilage, blood and vessels, lymph tissue, and parts of the kidneys and gonads

- Ectoderm: develops into nervous tissue, outer skin layer (including hair and nails), and parts of sense organs, mouth, sinuses, teeth

The ________ of the epithelium secretes a basal lamina; the underlying C.T. secretes a ________.

- basal layer

- reticular lamina

- Together the basal lamina and the reticular lamina form a non-cellular basement membrane on which the epithelium sits.

________ is the main protein of C.T. and  the most abundant protein in the body, making up about 25% of total protein content.

- Collagen

- Connective tissue is usually highly vascular and supplied with many nerves. (The exception is cartilage and tendon -- both have little or no blood supply and no nerves).

The ________ is a non-cellular material located between and around the cells.

- extracellular matrix

- It consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the ground substance may be fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous, or calcified).

________ are the most numerous cells of connective tissues.  These cells secrete protein fibers (collagen, elastin, & reticular fibers) and a “ground substance” which varies from one C.T. to another.

- Fibroblasts (common connective tissue cells)

Connective tissue cells secrete 3 common fibers. What are they?

- Collagen

- Elastin

- Reticular

________ is a connective tissue with a calcified intracellular matrix.  In the right circumstances, the chondrocytes of cartilage are capable of turning into the osteocytes that make up bone tissue.

- Bone

1. Tendons, ligaments, and attachments between organs and dermis of the skin.

2. Liver, lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.

3. Lung tissue, arteries.

1. Dense fibrous CT

2. Reticular CT

3. Elastic CT

1. ________ are another example of simple organs.

2. Glands that secrete their contents directly into the blood are called ________.

3. Glands that secrete their contents into a lumen or duct are called ________.

1. Epithelial glands

2. endocrine glands

3. exocrine glands

________ secrete substances through ducts to the surface of the skin or into the lumen of a hollow organ.

- Exocrine glands

- Includes mucus, sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes

Besides protection, the skin contributes to:

1. Regulation of body temperature

2. Sensory perceptions

3. Synthesis of vitamin D

4. Emotional expression

5. Important reservoir of blood

Name the 3 major layers of the skin.

1. Epidermis

2. Dermis

3. Subcutaneous (subQ)

1. The outer, thinner layer is called the ______ and consists of epithelial tissue.

2. The inner, thicker layer is called the _______ and consists of C.T.

3. The _______ layer (also called the hypodermis) is located underneath the dermis.

1. epidermis

2. dermis

3. subcutaneous (it is a loose areolar/adipose CT that attaches the skin to the underlying tissues and organs

1. _______ are doctors who treat disorders of all layers of the integumentary system.

2. What layer(s) of the skin is/are damaged with a first-degree burn?

3. Second-degree?

4. Third-degree?

1. Dermatologists

2. Epidermis

3. Dermis

4. Subcutaneous

The epidermis is composed of __________ which contains four major types of cells. What are they?

- keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

1. Keratinocytes

2. Melanocytes

3. Langerhans cells

4. Merkel cells

________ make up 90% of the cells. They produce keratin - a tough fibrous protein that provides protection.

- Keratinocytes

________ produce the pigment melanin that protects against damage by ultraviolet radiation.

- Melanocytes

________ are macrophages that originated in the red bone marrow. They are involved in the immune responses.

- Langerhans cells

________ function in the sensation of touch along with the other adjacent tactile discs (receptors).

- Merkel cells

1. The ________ or stratum germinativum is always the bottom (deepest) layer. Continuous cell division occurs here and produces all the other layers.

2. The ________ is a layer of 8–10 keratinocytes

3. The non-dividing cells of the 3rd layer (________) are filled with granules of keratin.

4. The ________ is the 4th layer but is only present in thick skin (the skin of the fingertips, palms, and soles).

5. The ________ is always outermost, composed of approximately 20 layers of flat cell-remnants that are like “bags of turtle wax” (dead keratinocytes with no cellular organelles filled with only keratin protein.)

1. stratum basale

2. stratum spinosum

3. stratum granulosum

4. stratum lucidum

5. stratum corneum

What is the process of replacing viable cells in the stratum basale with more and more of the waxy keratin protein as cells move from the deepest layer to the surface layer.

- Keritinization

- Dandruff is an excess of keratinized cells shed from the scalp

Melanin is produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale. What are the two types?

- Eumelanin (brown to black)

- Pheomelanin (yellow to red)

The dermis is composed of ________ containing collagen and elastic fibers.

- connective tissue

The ________ lies just below the epidermis and consists of areolar connective tissue containing thin collagen and elastic fibers, dermal papillae (including capillary loops), corpuscles of touch and free nerve endings.

- papillary region

The ________ consists of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers, adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous (oil) glands, and sudoriferous (sweat) glands.

- reticular region

1. Adapted to fast turn-over, the _______ resists damage and offers protection to underlying tissues.

2. The ______ provides temperature stability and prevents dehydration, and yet is capable of limited healing.

3. The ______ insulate, store fat, and anchor the skin.

1. epidermis

2. dermis

3. subcutaneous tissues

Types of Hair

1. Short, fine, pale hairs and barely visible to the naked eye.

2. Fine, non-pigmented, downy hairs that cover the body of the fetus.

3. Long, coarse, heavily pigmented hairs

1. Vellus

2. Lanugo

3. Terminal

Types of Sweat Glands

1. Located mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae, and bearded facial regions of adult males. They secrete a slightly viscous sweat.

2. The most numerous. They secrete a watery solution (600 ml per day) that helps to cool the body and eliminate small amounts of waste.

3. Modified sweat glands located in the ear canal

1. Apocrine: subcutaneous layer; the excretory duct open into hair follicles, with sweat secreted during emotional stress and sexual excitement; much of body odor is due to apocrine sweat

2. Eccrine: release sweat in response to an emotional stress such as fear or embarrassment; "cold sweat"

3. Ceruminous: involved in producing a waxy secretion called cerumen (earwax)

1. A ________ burn involves only the epidermis.

2. A ________ burn destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis - some skin functions are lost.

3. A ________ burn is a full-thickness burn (destroys the epidermis, dermis, and subQ layer.)

1. first-degree - characterized by mild pain and erythema (redness), but no blisters and skin functions remain intact

2. second-degree - redness, blister formation, edema, and pain

3. third-degree - most skin functions are lost, and the region is numb because sensory nerve endings have been destroyed

Major burns include:

1. Third-degree burns over ___ of the body surface area

2. Second-degree burns over ___ of the body surface area

3. Any ______ burns on the face, hands, feet, or perineum (anal to genitals)

4. When the burn area exceeds ___, more than half of the victims die.

1. 10%

2. 25%

3. third-degree

4. 70%

1. ________ are simply mediator molecules that have effects on cells in the local environment, or in a distant part of the body.

2. Some hormones, called ________ are local hormones that are secreted, and bind to the same cell.  

3. ________ are local hormones that are secreted into interstitial fluid and act on nearby cells.

4. ________ are secreted into interstitial fluid and then absorbed into the bloodstream to be carried systemically to any cell that displays the appropriate type of receptor.

1. Hormones

2. Autocrine hormones

3. Paracrine hormones

4. Endocrine hormones

1. Hormones can be divided into two broad ________.  This classification is useful because the two classes exert their effects differently.

2. ________ bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the cell.

3. ________ bind to receptors on the surface of the cell.

1. chemical classes

2. Lipid soluble hormones

3. Water soluble hormones

________ consist of steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and the gas nitric oxide.

- Lipid soluble hormones

- Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol

- Thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) are synthesized by attaching iodine to the amino acid tyrosine

- The gas nitric oxide (NO) is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Its synthesis is catalyzed by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.

________ require a carrier protein for transport in the watery environment of the blood.

- Lipid soluble hormones

- Once they arrive at their destination, however, they are able to freely pass through the plasma membrane to bind to receptors located in the cytoplasm or the nucleus of the target

________ include peptide and protein hormones (and others with an amine group), and a group of local hormones derived from the arachidonic acid on our cell membranes called eicosanoids.

-  Water soluble hormones

- Peptide hormones and protein hormones are amino acid polymers

- The two major types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins and leukotrienes – both play a role in mediating the inflammatory response

________ are easy to transport in the watery blood. The plasma membrane of target cells, however, is impermeable to them.

- Water soluble hormones

- Water soluble hormones exert their effects by binding to receptors exposed to the interstitial fluid on the surface of target cells

- The hormone binding to its receptor acts as the first messenger in a cascade of signal transduction.

________ and leukotrienes are eicosanoid hormones with local control.  They are synthesized from membrane lipids and have widespread effects.

- Prostaglandins (PGs)

- PG’s mediate pain, platelet aggregation, fever, and inflammation. They regulate smooth muscle contraction, gastric acid secretion, and airway size

Glands that secrete endocrine hormones into the bloodstream are called ________. The are one of the two major types of glands in the body, the other being ________ (which secrete their products into ducts).

- endocrine glands

- exocrine glands

When stimulated, an endocrine gland will release its hormone in frequent bursts, increasing the concentration of the hormone in the blood. Hormone secretion is regulated by ________, ________ in the blood, and other hormones. Most hormonal regulatory systems work via ________, but a few operate via positive feedback.

- signals from the nervous system

- chemical changes

- negative feedback

The endocrine system consists of what other 5 glands?

- Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands

What are the 5 organs/glands that are paramount to the endocrine system?

- Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, and testes

- The kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, and placenta also contribute

The ________ is the major link between the nervous and endocrine systems.

- hypothalamus

- It receives input from several regions in the brain including the thalamus, the RAS, and the limbic system

The hypothalamus mainly controls the ________, which is also called the hypophysis. It hangs down from the hypothalamus on a stalk called the ________. The gland is divided into an anterior ________ and a posterior ________ -- the anterior account for about 75% of the total weight of the gland.

- pituitary gland

- infundibulum

- adenohypophysis

- neurohypophysis

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target is: also called somatostatin, stimulates secretion of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) that promote growth.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: stimulates breast growth, and development of the mammary glands.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Prolactin (PRL)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: ovaries initiate development of oocytes; testes initiate development of spermatozoa.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Gonadotropic releasing hormone (GnRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: ovaries stimulate ovulation; testes stimulate testosterone production.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Gonadotropic releasing hormone (GnRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: stimulates release of mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid, and androgen hormones from the adrenal cortex.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Name the hypothalamus hormone and the hormone released from the adenohypophysis whose major function/target: stimulate the production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair; signals to the brain have effects on appetite and sexual arousal.

1. Hypothalamus hormone: Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

2. Hormone released from Adenohypophysis: Melanocyte Stimulating hormone (MSH)