1. Vascular Spasms

2. platelet plug formation

3. coagulation

1. damaged blood vessels respond to injury by constriction (vasoconstriction)
2. spasm mechanism becomes more efficient as amount of tissue damage increases 
3. spasm response is valuable becuase a strongly constricted artery can significantly reduce blood loss for 20-30 min

1. direct injury to vascular smooth muscle
2. chemicals from endothelial cells or platelets
3. reflexes initiated by local pain receptors

1. reinforce platelet plug with fibrin threads that act as a molecular glue
2. effective in sealing larger breaks
3. blood is transformed from liquid to gel

1. prothrombin activator is formed
2. converts plasma protein called prothrombin into thrombin, an enzyme
3. thrombin catalyzes the joining of fibrinogen to a fibrin mesh which traps blood vessels and seals the hole until repaired

• 45% of whole blood
• most dense component
• biconcave discs
• no nucleus or organelles
•  hemoglobin - protein that functions in gas transport
• other proteins

maintain plasma membrane

Promote change in RBC shape

• 55% of whole blood
• least dense
• straw colored sticky fluid
• albumin - plasma protein - shuttles certain molecules - blood buffer - contributes to plasma osmotic pressure

antiglutinogens

blood typing

anything the body percieves as foreign

promotes agglutination

ABO

Rh

based on presence of 2 agglutinogens, A and B

0 lacks agglutinogens

AB is least common

Agglutinins act against these antigens if they are foreign

50 types - each called Rh factor

antigen that makes blood + or -

• double walled sac that encloses the heart
• superficial layer - fibrous pericardium
• next is the parietal 
• then visceral
• between parietal and visceral is serous fluid

• protects the heart
• anchors it to surrounding structures
• prevents blood overflow
• serous membrane allows heart to move around without friction

located in right atrial wall

pacemaker

generates impulse about 75 times a min

sets pace for the heart because it has the fastest depolarization rate

sinus rhythm determines heart rate

temporal

carotid

apical (under left breast)

brachial

radial

ulnar

femoral

popliteal

posterior tibia

dosalispedis (top of foot)

1. place sphygmomanometer around arm and inflate
2. artery is collapsed, release air slowly
3. first sound is systolic blood pressure
4. when the sound stops, its diastolic pressure

• autonomic response to low blood pressure in the brain
• cardiac and vasomotor centers of medulla send sympathetic signals that increase heart rate and blood pressure

converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

part of renin-angiotensin mechanism which increases blood volume and pressure

• acute multi-system severe type 1 hypersensitivity reaction
• constriction of muscles surrounding bronchial tubes

1. ext body membranes - skin and mucus
2. phagocytic cells
3. specific - humoral antibody mediated

1. humoral

- active and passive tagging

2. cellular

-kill due to tag

   -cell mediated then lymphocytes attack

1. police body in blood and lymph
2. can kill cancer and virus cells before adaptive immune system is activated
3. granulocytes
4. kill by detecting lack of "self"
5. non phagocytic - kill on direct contact
6. secrete chemicals causing inflammation

• leukocytosis
• margination
• diapedesis
• chemotaxis

1. IgM

2. IgA

3. IgD

4. IgG

5. IgE

first antibody released to body by plasma cells

readily fixes compliment

found in mucus and other secretions

prevents pathogens from entering body

always bound to a B cell surface

activates b cells

• most abundant in plasma
• only one to cross placental barrier
• passive immunity that a mother transfers to fetus is because of IgG

found in blood

"troublemaker" antibodies in some allergies

midline laryngeal prominence 

fusion point of right and left thyroid cartilage

thyroid cartilage is larger in males

male hormones enlarge it during puberty

1. forms a thin double layered serosa
2. produces pleural fluid

parietal membrane covers thoracic wall

visceral membrane covers lungs

fills pleural cavity

lubricates lungs so they can move freely during respiration

• active process by contraction of abs
• abs push abdominal organs against diaphragm
• abs and internal intercostals depress rib cage

carried by hemoglobin

cellular respiration

carbonic acid transports 90% of CO2

carbamino compounds - 5%

dissolved gas - 5% 

Primary/Deciduous (Baby)

Permanent

20 teeth:

upper and lower jaw are the same

2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 molars

32 teeth

2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars

1. CN 5

2. CN 7

3. CN 9

4. CN 12

• rugae
• cardiac
• fundus
• body
• pyloric region
• greater curvature
• lesser curvature

B12 

Short Chain fatty acids

gastric inhibitory polypeptide

• stimulates insulin release
• inhibits HCl production

1. increases HCl 
2. stimultes gastric emptying
3. stimultes intestinal contraction
4. relaxes ileocecal valve
5. stimulates mass movement

Cholecystokinin

secretin

vasoactive intestinal peptide

cholecystokinin

1. potentiates secretin's action on liver and pancreas
2. increse output of pancreatic juice
3. gallbladder contraction/bile release

1. inhibits gastric gland secretion/gastric motility during gastric phase
2. potentiates CCK's actions
3. increase bile output of liver

1. stimulates buffer secretion in small intestines
2. dilates intestinal capillaries
3. relaxes intestinal smooth muscle
4. increases pancreatic secretion
5. ihibits stomach acid secretion

stress hormone

protects against severe gastric bleeding

1. cephalic (reflex) stage
2. gastric stage
3. intestinal stage

2/3 gastric secretion

caused by lowering pH and stretching of the stomach

histamine, gastrin, HCl

gastrin is produced as protein breaks down

occurs in the duodenum

releases secretin, CCK, VIP and GIP

stimulates pancreas and gall bladder

brush border is fuzzy surface on small intestines - on microvilli

enteropeptidase

fat soluble vitamins

Water soluble vitamins

come in with micells (fat droplets that easily diffuse through microvilli)

then taken into lacteals (lymphatic capillaries that absorb fat)

A, D, E, and K

stored in lean tissues of the body

urinated if not used within an hour

B complex and C

Mass movement 1-3 times a day

Haustrum contracts every 30 min

excretion of wastes and toxins

water balence

salt concentration

 pH equilibrium

secrete renin

secrete erythropoietin

syntesize vitamin D

efferent

Afferent

Glomerular filtration

Tubular resorption

tubular secretion

water conversion

• creates plasma-like filtrate of the blood
• in filtration membrane

• removes useful solutes from the filtrate and returns to blood
• in the proximal convoluted tube

• removes additional wastes from blood and adds to filtrate

help emptying the rectum

forcing poop out

internal - smooth, involuntary, prevents leakage

external - voluntary control

testes

ovaries

ducts

glands

penis

uterine tubes

uterus

vagina

features that develop during puberty

in females: for male attraction

FSH

LH

Estrogen

Progesterone

testosterone

follicle stimulating hormone

development of follicles

from anterior pituitary

Luetenizing hormone

Develops corpus luteum

1st half of mestrual cycle - vascularization

product of mammary duct system

prepares for mammary secretion

2nd half of mestrual cycle

from interstitial cells

in males

endometrium - inner

myometrium - muscular middle

perimetrium - outer

epididymis

rete testes

tunica albuginea

ductus deferens

interstitial cells

lobule

follicle

corpus luteum

corpus albicans

cortex/medulla