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AMH 2010 Exam 1
George Long Human Species Exam 1
158
Anthropology
Undergraduate 1
09/17/2007
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Term
 How did humans dominate the planet?
 Answer lies in understanding:
 Definition
 1) human biology
– in an evolutionary perspective
 2) role of culture
Term
Culture
 Definition
 “Strategy” - humans adapt to natural environment.
 Includes technologies, subsistence patterns, religion, marriage and family.
 Culture is learned (not biologically determined)
Term
Evolution
 Definition
 Change in genetic makeup
 Studied on two levels
Term
– Microevolution
 Definition
 Genetic alterations within population
Term
– Macroevolution
 Definition
Genetic change resulting in new species
Term
Culture and Evolution
 Definition
 Humans are result of “biocultural evolution”
 Culture and biology interacted over time
Term
 Anthropology studies:
 Definition
 1) biological aspects of humans
 2) the role of cultural factors.
Term
What is Anthropology?
 Definition
study of humankind
 (Greek “anthropos” for “humans”)
Term
subfields of Anthropology
 Definition
Cultural Anthropology
 Or “social anthropology”
Applied Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
Paleoanthropology
Primatology
Osteology
Paleopathology
Forensic anthropology
Term
Cultural Anthropology
 Or “social anthropology”
 Definition
 Studies all aspects of human behavior
Term
 Ethnographers
 Definition
describes one particular group of human behavior
Term
Ethnology
 Definition
compares numerous cultures
Term
Applied Anthropology
 Definition
 Many subfields have practical applications
 Most work outside of university
 Includes Cultural, Archaeology, Physical
Archaeology
 Studies and interprets material remains
 Information from artifacts and material culture
Term
Linguistic Anthropology
 Definition
 This field studies the origin of language and human speech
Term
Physical Anthropology
 Definition
 The study of “human biology” within the framework of evolution.
 And the interaction between biology and culture
Several subfields in this
Term
Paleoanthropology
 Definition
 the study of human evolution
 early hominids.
Term
Primatology
 Definition
 Study of nonhuman primates
Term
Osteology
 Definition
 Studies skeletons
 Often focuses on past groups.
Term
Paleopathology
 Definition
 Subdivision of osteology
 Study of disease and injury of human skeletal remains
Term
Forensic anthropology
 Definition
 Applying anthropology to legal matters
 Often identify skeletal remains
Term
 Science
 Definition
process of explaining and understanding phenomena through observations and experimentation.
 Involves an “empirical” approach
Term
 Empirical
 Definition
relying on experiment or observation
Term
 Empirical
 Definition
relying on experiment or observation
Term
Scientific Method
 Definition
 Biological anthropologist do scientific research and must adhere to the
Term
Scientific Method (A,B,C)
 Definition
 A) Problem is identified
 B) Hypothesis (provisional explanation) is tested through
– 1) collection of data (facts – scientific information)
– 2) analysis of data

 C) If hypothesis is verified, it becomes a theory
Term
 Theory
 Definition
statement of scientific relationships or principles that has been at least partially verified through rigorous testing
Term
 Scientific methodology
 Definition
an exercise in rational thought and critical thinking
Term
Critical Thinking
 Definition
 Skills enable people to:
– Evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information
Term
Evolution and Physical Anthropology
 Definition
 Understanding the details of this processes is crucial
 And it is beneficial to know how the mechanics of the process came to be discovered
 Including the social and political context influencing the discovery
Term
Brief History of Evolutionary Thought
 Definition
 Scientific knowledge is usually gained by a series of small steps
 It is informative to examine the development of ideas that led Charles Darwin and Russel Wallace to independently develop the theory of this by natural selection
Term
World View of Middle Ages
 Definition
 Christian beliefs - life as first created
 1) Fixity of species
 2) Brief existence of earth
Term
Scientific Revolution
 Definition
 Medieval beliefs upset
 much scientific activity
 Investigate nature as mechanism
 (not supernatural)
Term
Precursors to the Theory of Evolutions
 Definition
 Early naturalists
 List and describe plants and animals
 Impressed with diversity
 First steps to evolutionary theory
Term
John Ray
 Definition
 Defined species
 Believed in fixity of species
Term
Carolus Linnaeus
 Definition
 Classification plants and animals
 Systema Naturae
 Basis of taxonomy today
 “Homo sapiens”
Term
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
 Definition
 First attempt to explain evolution
 Inheritance of acquired characteristics
 Trait acquired in lifetime passed to offspring
 Not genetically correct but recognized importance of environment
Term
CHARLES DARWIN
 Definition
 Insight from finches - beak structure
 From common ancestor on mainland (South America)
 Adapted to different islands
 Developed concept “natural selection”
Term
Natural Selection
 Definition
 “Selection” key to evolution
 “Individuals” with favorable variation survive and reproduce
Term
Some of the processes: Selection
 Definition
 Variation with species
 Favorable traits more offspring reproductive success
 Later generations become distinct as new species
 Geological isolation and
 Different selective pressures important
Term
Individuals
 Definition
 natural selection operates on individuals
 the population evolves
 (populations changes over time)
Term
Natural Selection in Action
 Definition
Peppered Moths
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Term
Peppered Moths
 Definition
in England best documented modern example
 Lighter gray ones camouflaged, and darker ones eaten
Term
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
 Definition
 Antibiotics introduced 1940s
 Bacteria have genetic variation
 Surviving bacteria pass on resistance
 Bacteria don’t respond to antibiotics
Term
mechanisms of natural section
 Definition
 1) Trait must be inherited
 2) Variation in necessary
 3) Fitness is relative to environment
 measured by reproductive success
Term
Constraints on 19th Century Evolutionary Theory
 Definition
 Darwin and others did not know source of variation
 Some interest in Lamarck’s ideas
 Mechanism of transmitting traits not understood
 “Blending” of traits popular misconception
Term
Genetics
 Definition
– The study of how traits transmitted from one generation to next
– Crucial to understanding process of evolution
– Most Knowledge in last 50 years
Term
The Cell
 Definition
 Multicellular organism made of
 Complex eukaryotic cells
 Contain nucleus with chromosomes
Term
Nucleus
 Definition
 Contains two nucleic acids
– with genetic information
Term
Types of Cells
 Two types
 Definition
Somatic cells
Gametes
Term
Somatic cells
 Definition
– Body tissue
Term
Gametes
 Definition
– Sex cells (sperm or ova)
– Reproduction
Term
DNA Structure
 Definition
 Properties discovered in 1953
 DNA is a double-stranded molecule
 Two chains of nucleotides
Term
Nucleotide
 Definition
 Basic units of DNA molecule
Term
Genes
 Definition
segments of DNA
 Sequence of DNA bases
Term
Chromosomes
 Definition
structure composed of DNA
 Humans have 46 (23 pairs)
Term
2 Chromosome types
 Definition
Autosomes
Sex chromosomes
Term
Autosomes
 Definition
Govern physical characteristics except
– primary sex determination
Term
Sex chromosomes
 Definition
 Females - XX sex chromosomes
 Males - XY sex chromosomes
Term
Protein Synthesis
 Definition
 DNA controls this
 Proteins are composed of amino acid molecules
 Some structural
 Others functional (enzymes and hormones)
Term
Cell Division
 Definition
 Mitosis
 Meiosis
Term
MITOSIS
 Definition
 Somatic cells divide during growth and repair
 the “simple cell division” of somatic cells
Term
MEIOSIS
 Definition
 Sex cells
 Reduction of chromosomes critical
 produces egg or sperm cells by two divisions
 Results in cells with only 23 (half) chromosomes
 These unite
Term
The Evolutionary Significance of Meiosis
 Definition
 occurs in all sexually reproducing animals
 Highly important evolutionary innovation
 Increases genetic variation quickly
 Contributes to role of natural selection
Term
New Frontiers
 Definition
 Since discovery of DNA structure
 Field of genetics has revolutionized biological science
Term
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
 Definition
 Now use small samples
 Make copies of a DNA segment
 Use polymerase enzyme to make copies of DNA
Term
DNA “Fingerprinting”
 Definition
 Use multiplied copies (from PCR)
 DNA sequence patterns unique to individuals
 Used by forensic scientists Crime scenes
Term
Recombinant DNA
 Definition
 Transfers genes from cells
 from one species into another species
Term
Cloning
 Definition
 Making a genetically identical organism
 (for example by inserting a nucleus into an egg)
Term
Human Genome Project
 Definition
 International effort to sequence the entire human genome
Term
Genome
 Definition
genetic makeup of an individual or species
Term
Human Genes
 Definition
 Comprising 25 to 30,000 genes
 Years away from knowing the functions of all of the DNA segments
Term
Genetic Principles Discovered by Gregor Mendel
 Definition
 Experimenting with garden pea traits
 Involved observation and experimentation
 Discovered fundamental principles of how traits inherited
 Results were empirical basis for his theories
 Discovered fundamental principles of how traits transmitted
Term
Segregation
 Definition
 Mendel’s “First principle of inheritance”
 Different expression of same trait controlled by discrete units
Term
Dominance and Recessiveness
 Definition
Mendel recognized that traits not expressed are still present
Term
Recessive
 Definition
trait seemed lost (masked)
Term
Dominant
 Definition
expressed trait
Term
Gene
 Definition
segment of DNA
Term
Locus
 Definition
location of gene on chromosome
Term
Alleles
 Definition
variation or alternate forms of genes at same locus
Term
Homozygous
 Definition
two copies of same allele
Term
Heterozygous
 Definition
two different alleles at locus
Term
Genotype
 Definition
actual genetic makeup
Term
Phenotype
 Definition
observed characteristic
Term
Punnet Square
 Definition
 Represents different ways alleles combined
 The possible genotypes and phenotypes
Term
Independent Assortment
 Definition
 Mendel’s second principle of inheritance
 Principle of independent assortment
 No relationship between two traits
Term
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
 Definition
 Mendelian traits or “discrete traits”
 Controlled by alleles at one genetic locus
 Examples include ABO blood system
Term
ABO blood group systems
 Definition
 Governed by three alleles A, B, and O in population
 Individual has two
 “ABO” refers to antigens (large molecule) on red blood cells
Term
Four blood types
 Definition
 Type A
 Type B
 Type AB
 Type 0 = recessive
Term
Codominance
 Definition
 Two different alleles
 but one cannot mask the other
 Blood type AB- example
 Both are expressed
Term
Misconceptions Regarding Dominance and Recessiveness
 Definition
 Recessive
 Once incorrectly thought that recessive alleles had no effect
 Can now see effects on biochemical level
 Dominance incorrectly seen as
 “stronger” or “better” (no!)
 or more common in populations (no!)
Term
Polygenic Inheritance
 Definition
 “Polygenic” or continuous traits
 Influenced by alleles at two or more loci
 Each contributing to phenotype
Term
Polygenic traits
 Definition
more readily observable variation in humans
Term
Continuous
 Definition
like height of population uninterrupted from shortest to tallest
Term
Genetic and Environmental Factors
 Definition
 Genotype sets limits
 But phenotype interacts with environment
 Many polygenic traits obviously influenced by environment
 For example adult stature affected by nutrition
Term
Mitochondrial Inheritance
 Definition
 Much recent attention
 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
 (Distinct from DNA in nuclei)
 Inherited only from mother
 Mutation rates used for constructing relationships
Term
Modern Evolutionary Theory
 Definition
 In past rival viewpoints emphasized either
 “mutation” or “natural selection”
 as prime mover of evolutionary change
Term
“Modern synthesis”
 Definition
 Mid 20th century combines approaches
 Mutation and natural selection both required
 Evolution two stages
 1) Production and redistribution of variation
 2) Natural selection acting on this variation
Term
DEFINITION OF EVOLUTION
 Definition
 Modern genetic perspective
 A change in allele frequencies from one generation to the next
Term
Microevolution
 Definition
Short-term effects of evolution
Term
Macroevolution
 Definition
long-term effects of evolution
Term
Mutation
 Definition
the only way new variations produced
 First stage in evolutionary process.
Term
Gene Flow
 Definition
the exchange of alleles between populations
Term
Genetic Drift
 Definition
 Chance (random) factor in evolution
 Tied to small population size
Term
Founder Effect
 Definition
 A type of genetic drift
 Small migrant band colonizes new region
 A rare allele in larger parent population can
 become relatively common in small population
Term
Microevolutionary Changes
 Definition
 Gene flow and genetic drift
 Short-term changes
 For Long-term evolutionary changes
 Natural selection would likely play major role
 (with other forces)
Term
Forces of Evolution
 Definition
 Natural Selection
 Mutation
 Gene flow
 Genetic drift
Term
Recombination
 Definition
 Genetic information reshuffled every generation
 Produces genetic combinations which natural selection can act upon
Term
Natural Selection Acts on Variation
 Definition
provides directional change
 in allele frequency relative to specific environmental factors
 or adaptation to selective pressures
Term
Sickle-cell Allele
 Definition
 Best documented example of natural selection in humans
 West and Central Africa
 Parts of Greece and India
 Geographic correlated with Malaria
Term
Heterozygous individuals
 Definition
has greater resistance to Malaria than homozygous “normals”
Term
Directional Trends
 Definition
 Evolution is a change in allele frequency in a “population” from one generations to the next
 (gene flow and drift also produces change)
 “Directional” evolutionary trends could only be sustained by “natural selection”
Term
Evolutionary Change
 Definition
 Natural selection operator by differential reproduction
 Individuals with particular allele (adaptive-favorable) produce more offspring
 Frequency of the allele increases from generation to generation
 Results is significant evolutionary change over hundreds of generations
Term
Levels of Evolutionary Process
 Definition
 The evolutionary factors and levels of organization in five evolutionary processes
Term
Evolutionary Factors and/or forces and processes
 Definition
 Mutation
 Recombination
 Natural Selection
 Drift and gene flow
Term
1) DNA Level
 Mutation is the evolutionary factor
2) Chromosome Level
 Mutation is the evolutionary factor
3) Cell Level
 Recombination is the evolutionary factor
 (sex cells only)
4) Organism (Individual)
 Definition
These factors/forces or processes work on different levels
Term
Primates As Mammals
 A mammalian order
Evolutionary Trends
 Definition
 Primates defined by “evolutionary trends”
 Traits that characterize the entire order
Term
1) Limbs and Locomotion
 Definition
 Tendency towards erect posture.
 Hands & feet
– Prehensile or grasping ability.
Term
2) Diet and Teeth
 Definition
 Eat a wide variety of foods.
 “Generalized” dentition
 Teeth not specialized for one type of food.
Term
3) Senses and the Brain
 Definition
 “Color vision”
 Depth perception or stereoscopic vision
 Eyes positioned forward on the front of the face
 -providing for binocular vision
 Decreased reliance on sense of smell
 The brain has expanded in size and complexity
Term
4) Maturation, Learning, and Behavior
 Definition
 Reduced numbers of offspring
 Delayed maturation
 Greater dependence on learned behavior.
 Tend to live in social groups
Term
Primate Adaptations (explanations)
 Definition
Evolutionary Factors Explaining Characteristics
Term
1) Arboreal Hypothesis
 Definition
 Traditional explanation
 Adaptation to tree living
 Prehensile hand adapted to climbing
Term
2) Visual Predation Hypothesis
 Definition
 Alternative explanation
 Adapted to shrubby forest undergrowth
 Forward facing eyes for grabbing insects
Term
3) Flower Plants
 Definition
– Rise of flowering plants influenced primate evolution
– Fine vision and tactile discrimination
– Small fruits, berries, seeds in branches
Term
Diet and Teeth
 Definition
 Primates are generally omnivorous
 reflected in their generalized dentition
Term
Dental Formula
 Definition
 Old World Anthropoids
 New World monkeys
-Have a different amount of premolars
Term
Locomotion
 Definition
1)Quadrupedal
2) Vertical Clinging & Leaping
3) Brachiation
4) “Prehensile tails”
Term
Quadrupedal
 Definition
 Most primates “quadrupedal”
 Use all four limbs
 Majority are arboreal
 Some “Terrestial quadrupedalism”
Term
Vertical Clinging & Leaping
 Definition
number 2
Term
Brachiation
 Definition
 Brachiating (arm swinging)
 Gibbons and siamangs especially
Term
“Prehensile tails”
 Definition
 Grasping tail
 Only among New World monkeys
 (not in Old World primates)
Term
Primate Taxonomy
 Definition
 In any taxonomy system
 Categories illustrate evolutionary relationships
 Traditionally based on physical similarities
Term
Biochemical Data & Taxonomy
 Definition
 Primate classification changing because of genetic evidence
 Comparisons between two species
Term
Comparisons DNA Sequence
 Definition
 Chimpanzee and humans
 Closer to each other than either to gorilla
 Calculated that humans and chimpanzee shared common ancestor with gorilla 6-7 million years ago (mya)
Term
Revised Classifications
 Definition
 Also suggested that tarsiers are related to anthropoids (more than prosimians)
Term
Primate Classification (simplified)
 Definition
 Primates -order
 Two major divisions -suborders
Term
Primate Classification (simplified)
 Primates -order
 Two major divisions -suborders
 Definition
Prosimians
Anthropoids
Term
Prosimians
 Definition
– lemurs, lorises
– and traditionally tarsier included
Term
Tarsier
 Definition
 Prosimian traits
 And certain anthropoid features small nocturnal primates
 Islands of southeast Asia.
Term
Prosimians
 Definition
-Lemurs and Lorises
 Prosimians most primitive of the primates.
 Primitive characteristics:
Term
Lemurs
 Definition
 Madagascar
Term
Anthropoids -Suborder
 Definition
Monkeys, Apes and Humans
Term
Infraorders (of anthropoids)
 Definition
 New World monkeys - platyrrhini
 Old World anthropoids - catarrhini
– Monekys, apes, humans
- Refers to nose shape
Term
Monkeys
 Definition
 Divided into two large groups
 New World and Old World
 Separated by geographic area
 and evolutionary history
Term
New World Monkeys
 Definition
 Mexico, Central and South America
 Arboreal (trees)
 Quadrupedal
 Some use prehensile tails
Term
Old World Monkeys
 Definition
 Most widely distributed primate
 Africa, Asia, Japan
Term
Old World Monkeys Habitats
 Definition
 Tropical forests, semiarid desert, snow-covered areas
 Quadrupedal
 Most arboreal
 Some live on the ground (baboons)
Term
Hominoids (Apes and Humans)
 Definition
 Characteristics (different from monkeys)
– Larger body size
– Absence of a tail
– Shortened trunk
– More complex behavior
Term
Hominoidea Superfamily
 Definition
 Traditionally Includes three types
– “Lesser” Apes
 Gibbons and siamangs
– Great apes
 Orangutans, gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees
 Hominidae
– Humans
Term
“Lesser Apes”
 Definition
Gibbons and Siamangs
Great Apes
Gorillas
Chimpanzees
Bonobos
Humans
Term
Gibbons and Siamangs
 Definition
 Smallest apes
 Tropical areas of southeast Asia.
 Brachiation -arm swinging
 Distinctive long arms and curved fingers
Term
Great Apes
 Definition
 Orangutan, Gorillas, Chimps
Orangutans
 Heavily forested areas of Indonesian islands
 Arboreal (slow cautious climbers)
Term
Gorillas
 Definition
 Largest living primates
 Forests of central Africa.
 Exhibit marked sexual dimorphism
 (Males (400 pounds) females (200)).

 Primarily terrestrial
 Knuckle -walking.
 Groups with one large silverback male
 (w/ few adult females, and young offspring)
 Almost exclusively vegetarian
Term
Chimpanzees
 Definition
 Equatorial Africa.
 Locomotion includes knuckle-walking
 Eat a variety of plant and animal foods.
 Large communities
Term
Bonobos
 Definition
 Similar to chimpanzee
 (Only a few thousand )
 Sexuality includes frequent copulations
Term
Humans
 Definition
 Habitually bipedal hominid
 Family: Hominidae
 Humans only living species in hominids
 Genus: Homo
 Species: sapiens
Term
Homo Sapiens: Primate Heritage
 Primate heritage evident:
 Definition
 Primate heritage evident:
 1) Human teeth are typical primate teeth.
 2) Dependence on vision
 3) Flexible limbs and grasping hands
 4) Omnivorous diet
Term
Human Characteristics
 Definition
 1) Dependence on culture
 2) Dramatic increase in brain size & cognitive abilities.
 2) Bipedal locomotion
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