Term
| 1. The wings of the atlas and sacrum are modifications of what? How does the orientation of the wing of the ilium change as a calf or foal mature? What is the functional reason driving this change |
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Definition
-Modifications of transverse processes
-Wing of ilium is originally vertical in orientation, but changes to a more horizontal orientation as the animal matures
-To support increasing visceral weight as more normal forage begins to be consumed; wide pelvis helps form a broad sling to support the visceral weight |
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Term
| 2. Compare fore vs. hind limb extrinsic muscles. Why is one group insignificant? |
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Definition
-Hind limb muscles have a much greater muscle mass due to the propulsive, rather than supportive function
-Extrinsic mm. not as important in the hind limb during force transfer because the sacroiliac joint facilitates much of the force transfer from limbs to axial skeleton |
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Term
3. What is the topographic relationship of longitudinal and circular muscle in the gut? What are 2 specialized longitudinal muscle structures of the large intestine? What species are involved?
Describe 2 smooth muscles that attach to bone. |
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Definition
-Muscles layers in the gut are composed of an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer
-Muscle coat concentrated in a number of bands, which form sacculations when the muscles contract
-Horse, pig, human
-Rectococcygeus (from longitudinal coat of rectum to ventral part of caudal vertebrae; horizontally directed); Retractor penis/clitoris (vertically directed and deep to levator ani m.) |
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Term
| 4. The pelvic diaphragm is an extremely important structure in human anatomy because it supports the abdominal viscera in standing (or sitting) persons. What is the structure of it in domestic animals and what is the value of it in quadrupeds since it does not support the abdominal viscera as in humans? |
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Definition
-Composed of the coccygeus and levator ani mm. that arise from the inside or edge of the pelvis and attach on terminal parts of the digestive UG tracts and tail
-Main value here is to provide the main visceral pressure of abdominal press (the grunt) |
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Term
| 5. What is the perineum? What disorders occur in this region? |
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Definition
-Deep fascia and muscle; seals pelvic outlet around terminal portion of the UG and digestive tracts
-Dog: perineal hernias; Mare: perineal lacerations during parturition |
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Term
| 6. Compare the sacrosciatic ligament of ungulates with the sacrotuberous ligament of the dog and cat. How are the greater and lesser sciatic foramena formed and what passes through them in horse and ox? |
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Definition
-Sacrosciatic is broad, flat, and covers a huge area and the caudal edge corresponds to the sacrotuberous; sacrotuberous is cordlike
-Greater: sciatic nerve and cranial gluteal artery
-Lesser: internal obturator tendon in the HORSE; caudal gluteal a. in the OX |
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Term
| 7. What bones form the acetabulum? |
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Definition
| -Ilium, ischium, pubis, and acetabular bones |
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Term
| 8. Compare the pelvic floor of cow and horse. Why are the tuber ischii prominent in cattle but not in the horse? |
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Definition
-Pelvic floor is flat in the mare and concave in the cow
-In the horse, they are covered by the vertebral origin of the semimembranosus m. |
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Term
| 9. What forms the pelvic inlet and outlet and where do problems (dystocia) occur during parturition ? Why is this paradoxical ? How do hormones figure in here? |
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Definition
-Inlet (bony): sacrum, iliac shafts and pubis; Oulet (bone and ligament): Cd1, sacrotuberous ligament and ischial arch
-Problems more likely to occur at the inlet
-Inlet is much larger, but problems occur there more often (because the outlet is quite elastic in response to hormones)
-Hormones (relaxin) relax pelvic outlet and the sacroiliac joint |
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Term
| 10. What part of the pelvic region is widest in the fetus and what problems could this cause? |
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Definition
| -Widest at greater trochanters in the fetus; this can cause hip lock at the pelvic inlet during calving |
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Term
11. Please differentiate between:
colli and coli
longus and longissimus
peroneal and perineal
ilium and ileum; iliac and ileal
sciatic and ischiatic
estrus and estrous
prepuce and preputial
crus, crura and crural |
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Definition
-Colli: refers to collar/neck; Coli: refers to the intestines or colon
-Longus: long; Longissimus: longest
-Peroneal: pertains to the outer side of the leg; Perineal: pertains to the perineum/pelvis
-Ilium: bone of the pelvis; Ileum: most distal part of the small intestine
-Sciatic and Ischiatic: both pertain to the ischium
-Estrus: noun; Estrous: adjective form
-Prepuce: noun; Preputial: adjective form
-Crus: singular noun; Crura: plural noun; Crural: adjective form |
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Term
| 12. What is the functional significance of the sacroiliac joint? Sacroiliac luxation (dislocation) can be detected from a caudal view by noting a unilateral elevation of the tuber sacrale. How could this be related to estrus in cattle? |
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Definition
-Receives transfer of force from hind limb to the axial skeleton
-Relaxin hormone relaxes the joint and promotes its elevation (pseudoluxation) |
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Term
| 13. The terms hook bones and pin bones are often used in dairy cow judging. What do these terms refer to and what is the significance of the latter with regard to calving? |
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Definition
-Hook bones: tuber coxae; Pin bones: tuber ischii
-Wider tuber ischii facilitate greater ease during parturition |
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Term
| 14. Differentiate between pelvic diaphragm and urogenital diaphragm? What is the structure and function of the latter? |
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Definition
-Pelvic diaphragm: composed of two muscles; accommodates visceral pressure for abdominal press; attaches on the terminal parts of digestive and UG tracts; more dorsal
-Urogenital diaphragm: more ventral; fibrous connection between ischial arch and vestibule; functions to anchor the caudal part of the tract against the pull of a gravid uterus |
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Term
| 15. What is the structure and function of the constrictor vestibulae m. in dog and cow ? |
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Definition
-Dog: holds the male in the “tie” by a sphincter like action caudal to bulbus glandis
-Cow: U-shaped; blends with the caudal ventral part of the levator ani m. near external anal sphincter; just caudal to major vestibular gland; covers retractor clitoris m.; contraction narrows the genital passage and raises a ridge in its floor and makes the vulvar opening gape |
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Term
16. Which of the following muscles are smooth and which are striated?
levator ani ...... retractor penis ...... constrictor vestibulae ...... coccygeus ...... rectococcygeus
internal anal sphincter .......... external anal sphincter |
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Definition
¬-Smooth: retractor penis; rectococcygeus; internal anal sphincter
-Striated: levator ani, constrictor vestibulae; coccygeus; external anal sphincter |
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Term
| 1. How does the position of the ovary vary among domestic mammals? What causes these differences in ovarian position and how does this cause relate to formation of the ovarian bursa |
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Definition
-carnivore ovarian position is more cranial due to the suspensory ligament
-ungulate ovarian position is more caudal, there is no suspensory ligament
-these differences are due to presence or absence of suspensory ligament; tight fusion of the mesosalpinx and mesovarium in the carnivore result in a more closed ovarian bursa that encloses the ovary (pg. 198) |
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Term
| 2. What forms the walls of the ovarian bursa and how does the peritoneal opening of dog and ungulates compare? |
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Definition
-Mesosalpinx forms the bursa along w/ the mesovarium
-The peritoneal opening in the carnivore is small and fat filled
-In the ungulate it is wide open and transparent |
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Term
| 3. In what ways is the ovary of the mare different from that of other ungulates? |
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Definition
-the mare has a large ovulation fossa on the free border, smooth surface
-the sow has many prominent follicles like a clump of grapes
-the cow has a flat ovary, corpora lutea are prominent on the surface projections |
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Term
| 4. How does fusion of the uterine horns and other derivatives of the paramesonephoric ducts vary among the domestic mammals? |
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Definition
| -the degree of fusion is as follows: woman>mare>cow>sow or bitch> doe>marsupial |
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Term
| 5. Compare and contrast the uterine blood supply of ungulates and the dog. |
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Definition
-dog has two arteries: uterine branch of ovarian & uterine branch of vaginal, the main supply of the uterus
-the cow, mare, and sow have 3 arteries: uterine branch of the ovarian artery, middle uterine artery from the external iliac a of the mare and int. iliac of the cow, and the uterine branch of the vaginal a. |
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Term
| 6. Compare the vascular supply/drainage of the ovary and uterus of ruminants vs. mare and discuss the physiological significance of the cow/mare anatomic differences. |
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Definition
| -venous drainage-the ovarian a. is closely attached to the ovarian v. allowing luteolytic factors from the uterus to be transferred from the vein to the artery and then carried to the ovary where lysis of the CL takes place in the ruminants, and not in the mare. |
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Term
| 7. Mention 2 things (normal, or abnormal) that make or could make pipette passage difficult in a cow |
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Definition
| -suburethral diverticulum & transverse folds |
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Term
| 8. Which female animal has the most well developed clitoris and how does she use it? |
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Definition
| -mare, winks it at the stallions to alert them to the mare being in or close to estrus |
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Term
| 9. In which species, gender and location is the urethral sinus, urethral diverticulum, suburethral diverticulum and preputial diverticulum? What is the clinical significance of each? |
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Definition
-urethral sinus- horse, male, penis; location of bean, painful
-urethral diverticulum-horse, female, near ischiatic arch; causes catheterization problems
-suburethral diverticulum- cow, female, vestibule; #7 above
-perputial diverticulum- pig, boar, preputial opening; stink sac, masturbation problem if the boar learns to ejaculate into the diverticulum |
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Term
| 10. How many pairs of mammary glands are present in sow, bitch, queen, cow, mare, ewe and doe? (see TVA 364). Why is the old saying “worthless as teats on a boar hog” erroneous? (think genetics!!) Which species lack male nipples? |
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Definition
-sow=7 pair
-bitch=5 pairs
-cow=2 pairs
-queen= 4 pair
-mare & ewe=1 pair
-doe= 1 pair
Absent in horses, rats and mice. |
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Term
| 11. Compare and contrast the udder's 1o & 2o vascular supply in regard to edema and amputation. |
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Definition
-amputation: tying off the ext pudendal a. (main supply of blood to mammary) resulting in the gland atrophies and sloughs off
-edema: udder edema is caused by poor development of the secondary venous supply |
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Term
| 12. Compare and contrast the 2 types of erectile tissue of the penis. Which muscle squeezes each? |
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Definition
-corpus cavernosum: paired crura that unites to form the body of the penis, ischiocavernosus compresses the corpus cavernosum
-corpus spongiosum: sits in a ventral groove of the corpus cavernosum, bulbospongiosus compresses the corpus spongiosum |
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Term
| 13. Compare and contrast the penile anatomy of dog, horse, bull. What do the boar and llama resemble? How is the cat different from all? What does a tom use to stay inserted during coitus? |
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Definition
-dog: musculocavernosus; retractor penis not essential for normal penile function
-horse: musculocavernosus; retractor penis not essential; urethral sinus
-bull: fibrous (rigid rather than elastic); sigmoid flexure; retractor penis essential
-boar and llama resemble corkscrews
-cat penis points to the rear, and has spines at the apex which serves to help fixate it within the female |
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Term
| 14. What is smegma and the bean? Where is the bean found? |
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Definition
-smegma: waxy fetid secretion associated with the male external genitalia
-Bean: is a hard concretion formed in the horse urethral sinus |
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Term
| 15. What is the proper anatomical name of stink bag of boars and what is the significance of it? |
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Definition
| -preputial diverticulum: if damaged during slaughter, can contaminate the whole carcass |
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Term
| 16. What causes descent of the male testis? What is the result of failure of descent? |
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Definition
-shortening of the gubernaculums
-failure of descent is known as cryptorchidism |
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Term
| 17. What is the consequence of transection of the retractor penis m. in horse vs. bull or steer? |
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Definition
| -in the horse, the retractor penis m is not essential for erection, as it is for the bull, which needs it to create the sigmoid flexure and retract the penis |
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Term
| 18. Which male accessory sex gland is near the ischiatic arch? What is the probable function? |
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Definition
| -bulbourethral gland, which secretes a watery secretion that probably cleanses the urethra before the sperm passes |
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Term
| 19. Which muscle is most responsible for erection? Compare the pressures inside the erectile tissue of stallion and bull during erection, why is one much higher? What is “belling”. |
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Definition
-Corpus cavernosum: horse at very high-pressure musculocavernous type, hydraulic pressure causes erection, bull erection is cased by straightening of sigmoid flexure, fibrous type, no hydraulic pressure, mechanical elongation
-belling: horse corona/glans expands radially looks like a bell |
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Term
| 20. Differentiate: testis, testes and testicle; crus and crura; vas deferens and ductus deferens. What is the cod and pizzle? |
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Definition
-testis: singular testical
-testes: plural
-testicles: testis and epididymis
-crus: singular
-crura: plural
-vas deferens: clinical term
-ductus deferens: anatomical term
-cod: fat filled scrotal sac
-pizzle: lay term for penis |
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Term
| 21. What is the origin of the cremaster muscle? What is its relationship to the spermatic cord? |
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Definition
| -derived from the internal abdominal oblique and is outside the spermatic cord |
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Term
| 22. What is the usual anatomic site of calculi in steers and why? |
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Definition
| -distal loop, because this loop tends to kink, proximal loop is a smooth curve |
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Term
| 23. The term seminal vesicle is an old and somewhat misleading term referring to a vesicle for semen storage since early investigators found spermatozoa there when the fluid within was examined under a microscope. Why is this not a good place for semen storage? |
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Definition
| -this site is deep within the pelvis, where the internal temp would not be optimal for survival. |
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Term
| 24. What is the urethral process and in which domestic animals is it elongated? |
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Definition
| -the urethral process is a projection from the end of the penis; elongated in the ram and buck |
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Term
| 25. Compare/contrast male/female urinary tract anatomy with regard to disease vulnerability. |
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Definition
| -the urethra is longer and more slender in the male and less likely to be infected by ascending bacteria, but because it is so long it is prone to plugging by calculi; females have shorter but wider urethra, less prone to blockage but more prone to UTI |
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Term
| 26. Why does testicular descent occur? How does testicular descent effect the topographic relationship of the ductus deferens to the ureter and what is the surgical significance? |
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Definition
| -testicular descent occurs when the gubernaculum extrudes fluid, and shrinks, pulling the ductus deferens or looping the ductus deferens around the distal end of the ureter. Pulling the ductus deferens to taught especially when the bladder is full, can cause damage to the insertion of the ureter into the neck of the bladder, thus surgically significant. |
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Term
| 27. Why is the tunica albugina so thick in the bull? |
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Definition
| -tunica albuginea of the corpus cavernosum is thicker and less elastic, thus helps to withstand the high pressures within the enclosed erectile tissue, rupture results in blow out |
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Term
| 1. Compare and contrast the hip joint of cow and horse with regard to structure, function, and luxation susceptibility. |
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Definition
-Horse: The acetabulum is deep to help facilitate force transfer from the hind limb to the pelvis. The cow hip joint is much more susceptible to luxation than the equine hip. The acetabulum is surrounded by a fibrocartilagenous ring (which “embraces” the femoral head). Also there are 2 ligaments: the ligament of the femoral head (pretty much in all species) and the accessory ligament (only in horses and donkeys). The ligaments severely reduce rotation and abduction and pretty much only allow extension and flexion in the sagittal plane (see TVA p. 606 for more). It is also probably the reason why horses can’t step sideways.
-Cow: Apparently, in a cow, a more sloped pelvis makes a more upright pelvic inlet and a less sloped pelvis makes a flat rump. The less sloped pelvis makes the femurs vertical, which makes the cow more susceptible to hip joint injuries. The cow hip can be dislocated in several directions (although dorsocranial is most common). This is thought to be attributed to the weak or non-existent intra-articular ligament (ligament capitis). Flexion and extension is the primary movement, but outward rotation of the thigh is required to keep the stifle out of the abdomen (see TVA 749 for more).
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Term
| 2. What is the location of the lesser trochanter, third trochanter, extensor fossa, and trochlea lip which serves as a hook for the patellar ligamentous loop? What attaches to lesser and third trochanters ? |
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Definition
-Lesser trochanter: 1/3 of the way down femur on the medial side
-Third trochanter: 1/3 of the way down femur on the lateral side
-Extensor fossa: distal to the lateral condyle
-Trochlea lip: the craniometrical side of the distal femur
-Lesser trochanter attaches to the iliopsoas muscle
-Third trochanter attaches to the superficial gluteal muscle |
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Term
| 3. Is the patellar tendon really a ligament? What do various authorities say about it and why? What forms the loop that fixes the stifle? What does this loop "hook" over? What is a desmotomy and why would it be performed on the stifle? |
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Definition
-The patellar tendon/ligament is both a tendon and a ligament. Physiologists and neurologists say it is a tendon and that the patella is a sesamoid bone in the quadriceps tendon, which inserts on the tibial tuberosity.
-Anatomists and surgeons say that it is a ligament because they say the quadriceps tendon inserts on the patella and the patellar ligament connects the patella and the tibia.
-The loop is formed by the medial and middle patellar ligaments vertically and the patellar fibrocartilage dorsally. The hook is the medial lip of the femoral trochlea.
-Desmotomy means to cut a ligament. This would be done to the patellar ligament if the “loop” was getting stuck on the “hook” and keeping the horse from flexing the stifle. This would prevent the horse from locking the stifle joint. |
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Term
| 4. What are the individual synovial sacs of the stifle and how are they connected in the horse? What is the clinical significance of this information? Which joints have menisci? |
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Definition
-There are 3 individual joints: femoropatellar, medial femoraltibial, and lateral femorotibial. The femoropatellar always communicates with the medial femorotibial and communicates with the lateral femorotibial in 25% of horses. In ruminants, the femoropatellar and medial femorotibial cavities always communicate, but the lateral femorotibial never communicates with the other two.
-This is clinically significant because if something is injected into one of the joints, it is important to know which other joint capsule it will migrate to (for antibiotics, etc.) and most of the time, if there is an infection in one joint, it probably is in the others as well. The femorotibial joints have menisci. |
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Term
| 5. What are the components of the reciprocal apparatus? Which part is most likely to rupture and why? How would you diagnose this? |
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Definition
-The components of the reciprocal apparatus (hock movement reciprocates with stifle movement) are the superficial digital flexor (extends) and peroneus tertius (flexes). The peroneus tertius will rupture if the stifle flexes and the leg is caught so the hock is not allowed to flex.
-This can be diagnosed if you can flex the stifle while keeping the hock extended. |
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Term
| 6. Compare the structure of the talus of horse and ruminants* and give a possible behavioral explanation for the structural differences. The camelid talus is similar to that of ruminants. |
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Definition
-Horses: have a semicircular oblique trochlea of the talus that articulates with the tibia. Most movement of the hock is with the tibio/talal joint which has a wide range of movement and slackened joint capsule.
-Ruminants: have proximal and distal trochleas of the talus. The proximal trochlea articulates with the tibial cochlea and malleolar bone (making the tarsocrural joint). The distal trochlea articulates with the calcaneus and the fused central and 4th tarsal bones (making the proximal intertarsal joint). This means that both joints can flex and extend.
This is probably because the ruminants spend a lot of time in sternal recumbancy
with their hocks flexed. It is thought that the two joints allows the hock to be flexed for an extended period of time.
-The talus has a trochlea that acts like a pulley whereas the calcaneus is a lever arm that is responsible for movement, but is not weight bearing. The sustentaculum tali is so named because in plantagrade walkers (like humans and bears) the weight of the talus is on the sustentaculum tali so it sustains the talus. |
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Term
| 7. Compare and contrast the talus and calcaneous. Why is the sustentaculum so named? |
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Definition
-talus: semicircular trochlea (pulley), which rotates the tibia, virtually all hock movement occurs in the tibio/talal joint, and is weight bearing
-calcaneous: is a lever arm which is not weight bearing
-sustentaculum: name comes from the fact that it supports (sustains) the talus in the plantagrade human. |
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Term
| 8. What forms the tarsal canal and what are its contents? What is thoroughpin and how does it relate to carpal tunnel syndrome? What is the derivation of the name? |
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Definition
-formed by a groove on the medial side of the calcaneus and the flexor retinaculum
-contains the lateral tendon of the deep digital flexor m. and plantar nerves
-thoroughpin: a swelling of the sheath of the lateral tendon (similar to carpel tunnel syndrome) of the deep digital flexor m.
-the name comes from shuttle pin since the fluid in the swelling can shuttle from proximal lateral to distal medial as the swelling is palpated |
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Term
| 9. What structure is torn in curb? Why does this occur? |
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Definition
-plantar ligament tearing causes a round swelling
-occurs as a result of great force applied to the calcaneus by the tendons of the calcanean group |
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Term
| 10. Which joint surfaces are involved in bog spavin and bone spavin? |
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Definition
-bog spavin: is a swelling to the dorsal side medial to the peroneus tertius/ cranial tibial tendons and medial collateral ligament
-bone spavin: is an arthritis in the region of tc/t3 and t3/mt3 in the horse |
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Term
| 11. What is the cunean tendon and what is the surgical significance of it? |
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Definition
-cuneal tendon: medial tendon of the cranial tibial m
-significants of the cuneal tendon: it is often cut to release pressure it applies which exasperates the pain cased by bone spavin |
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Term
| 12. What tendon is cut for stringhalt? [Don't ask why, no one seems to have a clue!] |
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Definition
| -tendon of the lateral digital extensor m. |
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Term
| 13. What are antigravity muscles? Both tetanus and strychnine poisoning cause a clinical presentation commonly described as “extensor rigidity”. What are some exceptions to the extensor rule? |
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Definition
-They support the body weight and are usually extensors and stronger than their non weight-bearing antagonists
-Though flexors, the digital flexor muscles are also antigravity muscles |
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Term
| 14. Why is the tibial nerve larger than the peroneal nerve? Both of these nerves arise from the sciatic n. What are the hamstring muscles that lie _________lateral and ____________medial to the sciatic n.? |
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Definition
The tibial nerve supplies larger muscles in the caudal region, therefore needing a larger action potential to initiate full contractions.
-biceps femoris=lateral, semitendinosus=medial |
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Term
| 15. What is the nerve supply of the following muscles: rectus femoris, internal obturator, external obturator, vastus lateralis, cranial tibial, deep digital flexor, gastrocnemius, superficial digital flexor, semimembranosus, long digital extensor, peroneus tertius. |
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Definition
| -Recus femoris -> femoral nerve -internal obturator -> sciatic nerve -external obturator -> obturator nerve -vastus lateralis -> femoral nerve -cranial tibial -> fibular nerve -deep digital flexor -> tibial nerve -gastrocnemius -> tibial -superficial digital flexor -> tibial n. -semimembranosus -> ichiatic n. -long digital extensor -> ??? -peroneus tertius -> fibular nerve |
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Term
| 1. Compare the attachment of fore and hind limbs to the body and give reasons for the difference. Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic muscles and give examples of each. What is the main weight bearing forelimb extrinsic muscle? How does the horse reduce gravitational stress on it? |
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Definition
-Strong attachment of the hind quarters to the vertebrae via the sacro-iliac joint, but there is no bony attachment of the forelimb to axial skeleton; this allows for a mobile scapula (increased stride length) and shock absorption (due to muscular attachment)
-Extrinsic muscles attach the limb to the body: serratus ventralis, deep pectoral, latissimus dorsi, brachiocephalicus
-Intrinsic muscles make attachments only within the limb: brachialis, biceps brachii, shoulder muscles, extensor carpi radialis
-Serratus ventralis is main weight-bearing extrinsic
-Gravitational stress is reduced through the forelimb stay apparatus (connection of central tendon of biceps through the lacertus fibrosus to the extensor carpi radialis; this fixes the shoulder and carpal joints) |
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Term
| 2. Discuss the 3 common nerve damage syndromes of the upper forelimb. |
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Definition
-Sweeny: damage to the suprascapular nerve; assoc. with a horse collar; supplies infra- and supraspinatus mm.
-Radial nerve paralysis: supplies all intrinsic extensors; distal part vulnerable to damage where wraps around humerus caudal to brachialis m.
-Brachial plexus paralysis: occurs when animal is in lateral recumbency with the downside shoulder against the ribcage |
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Term
| 3. What is the structure and function of the lacertus fibrosus? |
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Definition
-Long tendon of the biceps; connects central tendon of biceps to extensor carpi radialis
-Continuous tendon extending from metacarpus to scapula; fixes the shoulder and carpal joints with little or no effect on the elbow joint |
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Term
| 4. Compare hind and forelimb stay apparatus structure and function. |
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Definition
-Hind: stifle/patella lock mechanism, superficial digital flexor, and suspensory apparatus; locks one leg at a time
-Fore: biceps tendon, lacertus fibrosus, extensor carpi radialis, and suspensory apparatus; both legs are fixed at the same time so that a support tripod is established |
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Term
| 5. Compare radius and ulnar fusion in various domestic species and study demo in lab by sink. |
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Definition
-Pig: fibrous fusion of radius and ulna
-Cow: bony fusion of radius and ulna
-Horse: bony fusion; distal part of ulna is absorbed within radius |
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Term
| 6. How is bone maturity for racing determined in the horse? |
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Definition
| -Radiology of the distal radial physis used to make determination |
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Term
| 7. What is the significance of absence of the clavicle in quadrupeds? What muscles cause advancement and retraction of the entire forelimb? |
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Definition
-Allows the shoulder to not be fixed, allowing for a much more mobile scapula to increase stride length (and therefore speed)
-Advancement: caused by brachiocephalicus
-Retraction: caused by deep pectoral m. (ascending) and latissimus mm. |
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Term
| 8. What are the principal inputs and outputs of the brachial plexus? |
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Definition
-Inputs: numbered nerves- C56,7,8 T1,2
-Outputs: named nerves- suprascapular, thoracodorsal, subscapular, axillary, median, ulnar, radial, musculocutaneous |
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Term
| 9. Differentiate between the flexor and extensor epicondyles of the humerus. |
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Definition
-Flexor: medial epicondyle; origin of antebrachial flexor mm.
-Extensor: lateral epicondyle; origin of antebrachial extensor mm. |
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Term
| 10. What is the chestnut? Compare fore and hind limb chestnuts. What are they homologus to? |
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Definition
-Chestnut: thickening of skin with no hair on it
-Located higher in the forelimb (above the carpus, on the medial side of the antebrachium about middle of its length) than the hind limb (below the hock, on the medial side of the distal tarsus)
-Likely a remnant of the carpal/tarsal pad |
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