Term
| Function of Vitamin A (retinal, retinol, retinoic acid) |
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Definition
Vision: vitamin A is structural component of light receptor protein, rhodopsin, in the retina
rhodopsin = vitamin A aldehyde (11-cis retinal) + opsin (protein) = rhodopsin
Retinoic Acid - acts as a hormone and is required for maintenance of normal epithelial tissue, e.g. epidermal cells, cells lining GIT, eye, respiratory, reproductive, and GI tracts, etc. by stimulating the synthesis of glycoproteins.
a. Without vitamin A, normal secratory epithelium is replaced by dry, keratinized epithelium.
3. Bone formation: retinoic acid acting as a hormone is required for synthesis of collagen in bone organic matrix, which is needed for mineralization
Note: Bone Formation: retinoic acid acting as a hormone is required for synthesis of collagen in bone organic matrix, which is needed for mineralization |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of Vitamin A |
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Definition
1. Night blindness (reversible)
2. Xerophthalmia (keratinized of cornea) May lead to: permanent blindness
3. Reproductive failure
4. Increased respiratory and GI tract infections
5. Thickening and keratinization of epidermis
6. Skeletal lesions, e.g. bone growth rate in growing animals |
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Term
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Definition
1. Carotenoids in green plants: vitamin A can be found in body from carotene in plants. Carotene content of plants declines with age and adverse storage conditions
2. Sources of vitamin form of A: Liver, fish liver oil, synthetic |
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Term
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Definition
| Large amounts are stored in the liver. Liver stores may be sufficient to last through the dry season for herbivores when the carotene content of the forage is very low |
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Term
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Definition
1. Nerve impulse transmission as a component of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter
2. As a component of phospholipids
a. structural component of lipid bilayer of cell membranes
b. comonent of lipid transport vehicles
3. serves as a methyl group donor for many biosynthetic reactions |
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Term
| Deficiency Signs of Choline |
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Definition
1. Fatty livers = decreased choline = decreased phospholipid = decreased fat export out of liver via lipid transport vehicles
2. slipped tendon perosis in avian species
3. Incoordination (growing swine) |
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Term
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Definition
| Citrus fruits, tomatoes, green peppers, leafy green veggies |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Scurvy = swollen, bleeding gums, loose teeth, poor wound healing, weak bones, hemorrhaging = probaby due to defective collagen synthesis and oxidative damage |
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Term
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Definition
1. Antioxidant in the body that helps protect lipids in cell membranes and in lipid transport vehicles and also nucleic acids from oxidative damage
2. As an antioxidant, ascorbate may also help protect white blood cells from their own oxidative chemical weapons that are employed to destroy phagocytized pathogens
3. Coenzyme required for synthesis of collagen found in supporting tissues of bone, dentin |
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Term
| Deficiency of Vitamin B12 |
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Definition
1. Anemia and leucopenia
2. Degeneration of epithelial cells in GIT = malabsorption syndrome called "sprue."
3. Nervous system lesions, which may occur before anemia
NOTE: strict vegetarians are at risk for developing vitamin B12 deficinecy, or nervous system lesions if taking a supplemental source of vitamin B12, from a microbial fermentation source that contains a mix of true B12 and B12 analogs that are not active for mammals |
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Term
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Definition
1. serves as a co-enzyme involved in synthesis of nucleic acids. Vitamin B12 coordiantes with folate in this respect. Nucleic acid synthesis is required for cell replication; thus Vitamin B12 is involved in: formation of red blood cells and leukocytes, maintaining epithelial cells, especially in GIT, maintain myelin sheath in nervous system
2. B12 is also a coenzyme in the pathway to convert propionate and branched-chain amino acids to glucose |
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Term
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Definition
Large amounts are stored in Liver, muscle, and other tissue contain substantial amounts
2. requires several months (sometimes years) to produce deficiency on B12 deficient diet |
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Term
| Functions of Folic Acid (AKA: Folate or Folacin) |
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Definition
| Coenzyme form, tetrahydrofolate, serves as a carrier of various 1-carbon unit building blocks in many biosynthetic reactions. Example: folate is involved in synthesis of nucleic acids& choline, both of which are needed for cell replication |
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Term
| Deficiency Signs of Folate |
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Definition
1. Neural tube birth defects NOTE: U.S. Public Health service recommends that women capable of having children take 400 ug folic acid/day during the perineal period
2. Anemia and Leucopenia (deficiency of WBC's)
3. GIT lesions --> intestinal malabsorption, diarrhea, etc. |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of Biotin |
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Definition
1. cracked hooves/feet
2. dermatitis and hair loss |
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Term
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Definition
1. Deficiency unlikely under normal feeding conditions, because biotin requirement of most animals is low vs. biotin content of common feeds and absorption of biotin produced by microbes in large intestine
2. microbial synthesis in LA supplies about half the biotin needs for humans
3. Conditions that may cause biotin deficiency - a. excess ingestion of uncooked, dehydrated or raw egg whites
b. prolonged antibiotic therapy |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Physiological functions: biotin is a co enzyme required for maintenance of hooves, fingernails, skin, hair, sebaceous glands, nerves, bone ma row, sex glands, etc. probably due to involvement of biotin in nucleic acids, FA, and steroid biosynthesis. |
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Term
| Pantothenic Acid Deficiency signs |
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Definition
1. lesions of nervous system, e.g. "goose stepping" in pigs
2. skin and hair problems: dermatitis, loss and graying of hair, etc.
3. GIT degeration = inflammation, diarrhea, vomiting, etc.
pantothenate is widely distributed in feeds of both plant and animal origin = deficiency unlikely in farm animals on modern diets |
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Term
| Requirement for vitamin B6 |
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Definition
| It is increased in high protein diets, pregnancy and other productive states that increase protein requirements, and women taking oral contraceptives or athletes taking anabolic steroids --> relationship to anabolic steroid hormone implants in cattle |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of vitamin B6 |
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Definition
1. anemia
2. convulsions and nerve degeneration |
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Term
| Physiological Functions of vitamin B6 |
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Definition
1. coenzyme required for synthesis of heme to make hemoglobin for oxygen transport in RBC
2. Coenzyme involved in synthesis of some neurotransmitter in brain and epinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
| metabolic functions: serves as coenzyme for vast array of enzymes involved mainly in amino acid metabolism |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of Niacin |
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Definition
1. 3 D's: dermatitis, Diarrhea, and Dementia
2. humans: pellagra (mouth lesions, GIT ulcers, anorexia, nausea, dermatitis)
note: pellagra also associated with deficiency of vitamin B6 and tryptophan because vitamin B6 is required to convert tryptophan to niacin |
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Term
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Definition
1. little storage; liver contains greatest concentration
2. excreted in urine |
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Term
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Definition
Niacin is a structural component of two coenzyme electron carriers:
1. NAD => energy metabolism i.e. ATP formation
2. NADP => biosynthetic reaction. FA and cholesterols biosynthesis, which affects synthesis of lipid bilayer in cell membranes |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of Riboflavin |
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Definition
1. curled toe paralysis in chicks: muscle weakness/paralysis = chicks walk on hocks with toes curled
2. skin and eye lesions, e.g. dermatitis, ctaracts, hair loss, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Riboflavin is a structural component of two coenzyme electron carriers: flavin mononucleotide and FAD => energy metabolism, i.e., ATP formation |
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Term
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Definition
Very little stored in body, excreted rapidly through urine
- riboflavin levels in diet in excess of requirements are not absorbed well, because riboflavin is absorbed via a saturable system. |
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Term
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Definition
1. fermentation byproduct feeds, e.g. yeast, wine grape solids, distillers dried grains, etc.
2. whole cereal grains, thiamin mainly found in germ and seed coat |
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Term
| Microbial Synthesis of Thiamin in GIT |
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Definition
1. ruminants dont require dietary source of thiamin under most conditions. treatment of polioencephalomalacia requires thiamin injections
2. humans: approximately 25% of requirements appears to be supplied by microbial synthesis in large intestine => limited absorption in L.I. occurs
3. Horses appear to require a dietary source = microbial synthesis in cecum.colon is insufficeint and or absorption from large intestine is low. |
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Term
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Definition
1. mainly affects tissues that have the highest metabolic rate, i.e. muscle, nerves, and GIT due to disruption of energy-producing pathways noted above.
Thiamin deficiency signs in most species:
1. GIT problems: impaired digestion/absorption; anorexia, diarrhea, etc.
b. muscle: weakness, fatigue
c. nerves: incoordination, convulsions |
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Term
| Main Functions of Thiamin |
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Definition
1. Thiamin functions as a coenzyme, thiamin pyrophosphate, that is essential for CHO metabolism, especially energy metabolism
2. Also functions as a coenzyme in the hexose monophosphate shunt pathway, which produces ribose and NADPH. This pathway is important in cell maintenance, because ribose is used in the synthesis of nucleic acids, ATP, many coenzymes, histidine, etc., and NADPH is involved in FA and steroid synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
1. vitamin K is a coenzyme required for synthesis of prothrombin and other calcium binding blood clotting factors in the liver
2. vitamin K is a coenzyme required to synthesize calcium binding proteins in other tissues such as bone |
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Term
| Vitamin K deficiency signs |
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Definition
1. increased blood clotting time which leads to serious hemorrhaging and death
2. osteoporosis
3. atherosclerosis |
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Term
| Deficiency signs of Vitamin E |
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Definition
1. nutritional nuscular dystrophy (NMD): muscle degenration from oxidative damage => muscle weakness, paralysis, and death "white muscle disease" in cattle and sheep
2. in poultry: reproductive failure, encephalomalacia, exudative diatheis
3. compromised immune system defense |
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Term
| Main function of vitamin E |
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Definition
1. as an antioxidant in body and in feed: vitamin E in body helps protect lipids in cell membranes and lipid transport vehicles from being destroyed by oxidative destruction
b. vitamin E in feeds helps preserve nutritional value by protecting essential fatty acids and the other fat soluble vitamin from oxidative destruction.
3. vitamin E as an antioxidant also may protect white blood cells from being destroyed by their own oxidative chemical weapons, i.e. oxidants like water, oxygen, and oxygen radicals that are used to kill phagocytized pathogens |
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Term
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Definition
1. synthesis in skin from cholesterol with energy supplied by UV light. requires 15-20 minutes exposure 2-4 times a week for fair skinned people, longer exposure needed for darker skin people
2. dietary: liver or oils extracted from liver; vitamin premixes |
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Term
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Definition
1. chronic: skeltal lesions, e.g. rickets, and osteomalacia
2. acute: tetany and related muscle and nervous disorders
3. poultry: decreased egg production and hatchability, thin shelled eggs
4. increased incidence of cancer, autoimmune diseases, and increased susceptibility to infectious disease. |
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Term
| Functions of Vitamin D in the immune system |
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Definition
a. vitamin D has potent anticancer actions and lowers the risk of most types of cancer including colon, skin, breast, ovarian, prostate, lung, and lymph system
2.stimulates the synthesis of two endogenous natural antimicrobial peptides, which act as natural antibiotics against a wide spectrum of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, including mycobacterium tuberculosis, the organism responsible for tuberculosis
c. suppresses excessive inflammation which helps decrease the severity/ incidence of autoimmune disease such as Type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease |
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Term
| Specific functions of vitamin D in Ca and P metabolism |
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Definition
1. small intestine: D3 required for absorption of Ca and P from smll intestine
2. Bone - D3 directly causes bone breakdown to release Ca and P from bone when plasma Ca and P levels are low = increased plasma Ca and P.
3. kidneys: D3 decreased kidney excretion of Ca and P = conserves Ca and P |
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Term
| Main Functions of Vitamin D in Ca and P homeostasis |
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Definition
a. general function of active D3 is to help maintain adequate Ca and P levels in the blood to supply Ca to support bone mineralization, muscle contraction, nerve impulse conduction
NOTE: regulation of plasma Ca and P levels is essential to life due to lethal effects of either hypo or hypercalcemia:
1. acute hypocalcemia: rapid death from tetany and paralysis due to Ca involvement in muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction
2. hypercalcemia: calcification of soft tissue, e.g. kidneys, arteries, lungs, etc. |
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Term
| Storage info about Vitamin D3 |
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Definition
| stored largely in the liver. The skin is the only organ capable of both synthesizing vitamin D and converting it to the biologically active form. |
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Term
| Microbes synthesize how many B-complex vitamins ____ & which Fat-soluble vitamins? |
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Definition
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Term
| Niacin can be synthesized in the animal form from the amino acid _________ |
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Definition
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Term
| List the three vitamins that can be absorbed from the large intestine |
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Definition
| Thiamin, biotin, and vitamin K |
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Term
| List the Four Fat-soluble vitamins |
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Definition
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Term
| Vitamin A can be synthesized in the body from what vitamin A precursor contained in plants? |
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Definition
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Term
| List the minerals that are Macroelements |
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Definition
| Calcium, Phosphorous, Sodium, Chlorine, Potassium, Sulfur, Magnesium |
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Term
| Is cobalt a dietary requirement for both ruminants and monogastrics? |
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Definition
| No, it is only required for ruminant and possibly horses to maintain microbial population in Large Intestine |
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Term
| The importance of fermented beverages containing chromium |
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Definition
| Chromium is involved with carb, lipid, and protein metabolism, is cofactor with insulin, and has high levels of mucleic acids. A deficiency in it would cause hyperglycemia, increased blood cholesterol, and therosclerosis. |
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Term
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Definition
Essential for normal bone formation as a structural component of bone crystals and as an enzyme cofactor involved in formation of bone protein matrix and tendons, i.e. collagen and elastin synthesis
also an enzyme cofactor for many enzymes involved in CHO, fat, and protein metabolism, e.g., energy metabolism. Mn can substitute for Mg as an enzyme cofactor in many reactions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Explain how Cl is involved in protein digestion |
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Definition
| It is a component of HCL in gastric juice and involved in protein digestion |
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Term
| Know the suitable Ca:P ratio for monogastrics and ruminants |
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Definition
monogastrics 1:1 - 2:1, optimal is 1:4:1
ruminants 1:1 - 7:1f the minimum P requirement is met |
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Term
| Why is the dietary Ca:P ratio important and explain what happens when the Calcium and Phosphorous is imbalanced? |
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Definition
| If there is an excess of either Ca or P, it will interfere with the absorption of the other from GIT, which may cause a deficiency. |
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Term
| True or false, iron is recycled very efficiently in the body |
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Definition
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Term
| Fluorine Deficiency symptoms |
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Definition
| dental cavities, osteoporosis, calcification of aorta |
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Term
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Definition
a. structural component of bones, teeth, and enamel. fluorine replaces the hydroxyl group in the hydroxyapatite crystals to produce strong bones and tooth enamel that is more resistant to acid decay. NOTE: low level of fluorine is sufficient in adults for maintenence of strong teeth.
1) the protective effect of fluorine in developing strong teeth and enamel is greatest during tooth development in infancy and early childhood, which helps prevent dental cavities later in life.
2) fluoridated water also helps prevent cavities in adults |
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Term
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Definition
chronic = "alkali disease" : sloughed or deformed hooves, hair and weight loss, stiff joints, heart atrophy, liver necrosis, etc.
b. acute = blind staggers: blindness, abdominal pain, excess salivation, teeth grinding, respiratory failure, sudden death
c. soils containing greater than .5 ppm are potentially dangerous due to concentration of Se in plants
d. maximum tolerable level recommended for most species is 2 ppm
e. dietary requirements range .1-.3 ppm, depending upon species |
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Term
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Definition
Severe dermatitis
b. impaired wound healing
c. poor feather, hair, or wool development |
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Term
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Definition
1. Zn is an enzyme cofactor required for nucleic acid synthesis which in turn affects protein synthesis. For e.g. proteins in skin, hair, wool, feathers, etc.
NOTE: Zn is an enzyme cofactor for many other enzymes
b. Zn is a component of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas, which is involved in regulating blood glucose concentration and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| cobalt deficiency causes vit B12 deficiency in ruminants |
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Term
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Definition
Structural component of vitamin B12; cobalt is required by microbes to synthesize Vitamin B12
- it is a dietary requirement for ruminants only, and possibly horses to maintain healthy microbes in large population |
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Term
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Definition
(occurs mainly in livestock grazing forage in I-deficient areas without access to iodized salt)
a. goiter = enlargement of thyroid gland due to accumulation of thyroid proteins
b. young born weak, dead or hairless |
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Term
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Definition
| structural component of thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating growth and metabolism. Thyroxine is synthesized in thyroid gland |
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Term
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Definition
| copper is an enzyme cofactor for enzymes involved in: hemoglobin synthesis, bone formation matrix formation, i.e. collagen synthesis, formation of myelin sheath in nerves of CNS, Cu is a component of an enzyme required to form the pigment melanin from tyrosine, Cu is also required to synthesize keratin in wool, hair, etc. , a copper containing enzyme is required for normal elastin formation in the aorta and rest of the cardiovascular system. |
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Term
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Definition
a. unlikely in adults on normal diets except under pathological conditions or excess blood loss. absorbed iron is "tenaciously" held and not excreted to large extent. recycled very efficiently in body.
b. body regulates iron absorption, but has no mechanism for excretion for excess iron
c. deficiency is more likley in newborn animals, because milk is deficeint
d. symptoms: iron deficient anemia, decreased growth rate, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
Heme iron: a component of O2 carriers in red blood cells and muscles and a component of cytochromes in the electron transport chain & cytochrome P-450 detoxification enzyme system in the liver.
non-heme iron: a component of iron containing flavoprotein enzymes involved mainly in energy metabolism, e.g. HADH dehydrogenase
NOTE: is stored in the liver and bone marrow: over half the iron in body is in hemoglobin |
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Term
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Definition
structural component of S-containing AA: cysteine and methionine
b. component of thiamin and biotin (b-complex vitamins) = needed by microbes in ruminant diets to synthesize these two vitmamins. thiamin and biotin are dietary requirements for monogastrics = animals can not use sulfur to synthesize these two vitamins
c. component of many other important compounds: CoA, glutathione, heparin, chondroitin sulfate in cartilage, bones, and tendons |
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Term
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Definition
acute: hypokalemia, muscle weakness, paralysis, increased heart rate and abnormal rythm = may cause death. dairrhea or excessive sweating may cause a large loss of potassium that can be fatal due to role in nerve impulse conduction.
b. in ruminants, fed high-roughage diets, deficiency is unlikely except under pathological conditions, because most common roughage feedstuffs contain adequate potassium.
c. high grain diets may increase need for potassium in diet because grains are low in K+ vs. roughages.
subacute: decreased growth rate, production, or body weight due to role of K |
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Term
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Definition
Note: most feedstuffs of plant origin are deficient in Na = add NaCl to diet
subacute: mainly decreased growth rate, and poor feed/gain in growing animals
subacute - in adults, decreased production and weight loss
acute: large loss may occur via sweat or diarrhea resulting in acute deficiency that may be life-threatening due to role of Na in nerve impulse conduction |
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Term
| Functions common to sodium, chlorine, and potassium |
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Definition
| help maintain osmotic pressure balance and help maintain acid/base balance |
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Term
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Definition
acute deficiency: vasodialtion, loss of equilibirum, convulsions, tetany, death, example, grass tetany in cattle
b. chronic deficiency: bone demineralization
Grass tetany: common problem associated with cattle and other herbivores grazing pasture or cereal forages during periods of lush growth
b. low blood Mg is the problem, although cause are not well understood. interference with Mg absorption or metabolism is likely. trans-aconitate in plants is implicated
symptoms of grass tetany: incoordinated gait, tetany and convulsions, grinding teeth, excess salivation, death |
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Term
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Definition
NOTE: Mg is present in body in larger amounts than other minerals except Ca and P, 60% of Mg in bone, remainder in soft tissue and fluids
a. bone formation as a structural component of bone crystals
b. enzyme activator/cofactor for many enzymes involved in CHO metabolism and phosphate group transfer reaction, i.e. energy metabolism
c. muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction via influence on membrane permeability to Na |
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Term
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Definition
calcium is in ground limestone or or oyster shells
b. sodium phosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate, etc
c. Ca&P: dicalcium phosphate, bone meal, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
a. bone abnormalities
b. pics (abnormal appetite)
c. impaired fertility in cattle |
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Term
| Major functions of phosphorous |
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Definition
1. bone formation as structural component of crystals in bones and teeth
2. energy metabolism as a component of ATP
c. component of phospholipids in cell membranes and lipid transport moieties
d. maintenance of osmotic pressure and acid/ase balance
e. phosphate is component of DNA and RNA
f. P is a component of several enzyme systems, e.g. NADP, flavoprotein enzymes, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
a. bone abnormalitites (weak and deformed bones, lameness, etc.)
1. rickets - young animals
2. osteomalacia - adults osteomalacia = bone softening
b. tetany and death e.g. "milk fever" in dairy cattle usually occurs in early lactation when there is a large drain on Ca reserves for milk production
normal plasma calcium concentration: 8:4 to 10.5 mg Ca/dL. below 5-6 mg Ca/dl is life threatening
c. increased blood clotting time |
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Term
| Major functions of calcium |
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Definition
a. bone formation as structural component of bone crystals in skeleton
b. blood clotting cofactor acting in concert with calcium binding blood clotting factors
c. muscle contraction - calcium has direct involvement as a cofactor
d. nerve impulse conduction via influence on membrane permeability to Na.
e. Ca serves as an intracellular regulator of many enzymes, and 2nd messenger of hormone action for many hormones |
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