Term
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Definition
| Sponsor of Roanoke Island colony, which disappeared and became known as the "Lost Colony." |
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Definition
| A group of investors who bought the rights to establish New-World Plantations from the King of England. |
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Definition
| The Joint-Stock Company which founded Jamestown, Virginia. Jamestown was headed by John Smith. |
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Term
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Definition
| A means of attracting new settlers to the Virginia Region of the New World. One "headright" was a tract of land of roughly 50 acres that was granted to colonists and settlers to encourage immigration. Wealthy landowners used the headright system to accumulate land by paying for the passage of indentured servants in order to receive a headright for each settler they sponsored. |
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Term
| The Virginia House of Burgesses |
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Definition
| Established in Virginia in 1619, the House of Burgesses was a governing body of Virginia in which any property-holding, white, male citizen could vote. All decisions of the House, however, needed the approval of the Virginia Company. |
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Term
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Definition
| Puritan who originally taught that church and state should be separate. He was banished from his Salem Bay settlement and went on to found Rhode Island, the first colony to allow free exercise of religion. |
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Definition
| Advocate of antinomanism, which is the belief that faith and God's grace, not following moral law and preforming good deeds, is what is required for Salvation. She challenged Puritan beliefs, was put on trial for Heresy, convicted, and banished. |
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Definition
| Quaker who established Pennsylvania. Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedoms and civil liberties. Penn also attempted to act more civilly towards the Native Americans in his territory. |
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Term
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Definition
| Though England regulated trade and business in the colonies, Salutary Neglect was when England decided to not interfere in colonial affairs whenever possible. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hard currency, such as coins of a precious metal. |
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Term
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Definition
| Passed between 1651 and 1673, the navigation acts required colonists to buy goods from England, and to sell certain products only to England. Sought to established wide-ranging English control over New World commerce. |
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Term
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Definition
| Courts in which defendants were not entitled to a Jury used to try accused violates of the Navigation Acts. |
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Term
| The New England Confederation |
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Definition
| First colonial attempt at some sort of Centralized Government. Though the New England Confederation had no real power, it offered advice to the New England Colonies when disputes arose between them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Took place in Virginia in the 1670s. Bacon was a western farmer who felt that the colonial government of Virginia was not doing enough to protect Englishmen in Western Virginia from Natives. Bacon's group attacked several native tribes and then marched on the Royal Government of Virgina. |
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Term
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Definition
| If you don't remember this, you're a fool. Bloody war between Natives + Colonists, Natives lost, marked the end of a formidable Native American presence in the New England Colonies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Late 1739, 20 or so slaves rebelled against their white masters in the first major slave rebellion in the New World. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changed the rules of Puritan baptisms. Many men were losing interest in church, so the Puritans decided to baptize all those whos parents had been baptized. The halfway part is because thouse who had not "experienced God's grace" could not vote. |
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Term
| The First Great Awakening |
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Definition
| This period was exemplified by two men - Johnathan Edwards and George Whitefield - and was a wave of religious revivalism. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plan provided for a inter-colonial government and a system for collecting taxes for the colonies' defense. This was headed by Ben Franklin, and was rejected because colonists did not want to unite under a single legislature. |
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Term
| Seven Year's War / French and Indian War |
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Definition
| War between England and France that was fought largely in the colonies. This war seeded the first seeds of any British sentiment in the colonies, ended in a British victory, and resulted in Natives being not happy - exemplified in the Pontiac Rebellion. |
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Term
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Definition
| Forbid colonists from settling west of the Appalachians. It was not well enforced and came after many colonists had already settled west of the mountain range. One of its largest affects was to create anti-British sentiment because colonists saw it as unwanted British intervention in their affairs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Passed in 1764, established a number of new duties on goods in the colonies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Forbid colonists from issuing paper money. This act, combined with the sugar act and the proclamation of 1763 causes a great deal of discontent in the colonies. These acts marked an end to salutary neglect in the colonies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Passed in 1765, the Stamp Act included a number of provocative elements. Firstly, it placed a tax on the colonists specifically designed to raise revenue. It was a tax on goods that affected virtually everybody. It prompted the "No taxation without representation" cry. |
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Term
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Definition
| Asserted British right to tax and legislate in all cases anywhere in the colonies. It was passed immediately after the withdrawal of the Stamp Act. |
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Term
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Definition
| Antagonistic acts passed pre revolution the the colonies. These acts created new vice-admiralty courts, increased taxes on goods imported to the colonies, suspended the New York legislature, and they provoked a strong reaction from the colonists. |
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Term
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Definition
| Protest by the Sons of Liberty against British taxes on tea. |
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Term
| Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) |
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Definition
| Acts which closed Boston Harbour, tightened control over Massachusetts government, forced quartering in Massachusetts, granted greater liberties to catholics through the Quebec Act, and impeded westward expansion. |
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Term
| First Continental Congress |
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Definition
| Gathered a list of Colonial Grievances, encouraged boycotts of British goods, and represented a major step towards independence. |
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Term
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Definition
| Battles fought a year before the Declaration of Independence was created. Fought to repel redcoats who wanted to confiscate weapons in Concord. |
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Term
| Second Continental Congress |
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Definition
| Printed money, created government of the colonies, established a Continental Army, and choose Washington to lead the rebel forces. |
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Term
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Definition
| Typically white Protestant property holders and gentry, as well as urban artisans. |
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Term
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Definition
| Remained loyal to the King of England, loyalists were typically government officials, Anglicans, merchants dependent of trade with England, religious and ethnic minorities who feared the rebels, and slaves who felt they would be better under British rule than American. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pamphlet by Thomas Paine which advocated independence and a republic government, rather than a monarchy. |
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Term
| Declaration of Independence |
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Definition
| Written by Thomas Jefferson, listed grievance against the crown, and articulates the principle of individual liberty and the government's responsibility to serve the people. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ended the war for American Independence. England recognized the United States of American and granted them generous territorial rights. |
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Term
| The Articles of Confederation |
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Definition
| A national constitution that was concerned with preventing the central government from gaining too much power, as opposed to empowering the government to allow it to function effectively. |
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Term
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Definition
| In 1787, a group of angry farmers marched on Boston to protest what they considered to be unfair political and economic practices. The rebellion caused many to believe that establishing a stronger central government in the United States might be prudent. |
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Term
| Northwest Ordinance of 1787 |
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Definition
| Greatest Achievement of the Articles of Confederation. Abolished slavery in the Northwest Territories, set regulations for territories applying for statehood, and contained a bill of rights guaranteeing trial by jury, free religion, and freedom from excessive punishment. |
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Term
| Constitutional Convention |
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Definition
| Originally called to modify the Articles of Confederation, the Constitutional Convention ended up shaping the constitution and submitting it for ratification. |
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Term
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Definition
| Counted slaves as 3/5 of a person for both taxational and representational purposes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Anonymously published by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. These papers were published in New York City newspapers and were critical in swaying public opinion in Nueva York to favour the new Constitution. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hamilton vs. Jefferson, round one. Hamilton believed that the "Necessary and Proper" clause of the Constitution allowed for the government to to legally create a national bank to help the economy. Jefferson disagreed, as an anti-federalist, he believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and thought the federal government ought to remain small. Washington, hearing both sides, sided with Hamilton, and signed the National Bank into law. |
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Term
| Hamilton's Financial Plan |
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Definition
Hamilton's financial plan for handling the national debt acquired from the Revolutionary War included the following.
1) Federal assumption of State debts.
2)Repayment of those debts through land grants in the west.
Because southern sates felt like the plan benefited the north too much, Hamilton agreed to a southern location for the capital city - Washington DC. |
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Term
| Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality |
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Definition
| During the French Revolution and the subsequent war between England and France, both sides desired the support of the United States. Washington set a precedent with his Proclamation of Neutrality, which called for "friendly and impartial relations towards belligerent powers." |
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Term
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Definition
| Hamilton's financial plan placed a tax on whiskey in order to help raise revenue to defray the debt from the American Revolution. This caused the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania, which was only dispersed when Washington intervened with federal militia. Washington then pardoned those involved - which showed both the strength and fairness of the federal government. |
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Term
| Treaty of San Lorenzo / Pinckney's Treaty |
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Definition
| Spain opened the lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade. They granted right of deposit to Americans so that they could trade in New Orleans without paying duties to the Spanish. It set the southern boundary of the USA at the 31st parallel, rather than north of that line, as Spain previously insisted. High mark of Washington's Presidency. |
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Term
| Washington's Farewell Address |
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Definition
| After Washington set the president of only serving two terms, he gave his farewell address. In it, he warned against political parties, warning that they would hurt the unity of the nation, and he encouraged isolationism, which the USA held to until the late 1800s. |
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Term
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Definition
| To prevent French seizure of American ships, President Adams sent diplomats to France to negotiate. The French refused to negotiate without first being paid a large sum of money, which resulted in the American Ambassadors returning home. Public sentiment turned against France, and Adams narrowly managed to avoid war. "Millions for defense, not one penny for tribute." |
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Term
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Definition
| Passed under the Adams presidency, these acts allowed the government to forcibly expel foreigners in the USA and jail newspaper editors for publishing certain materials. |
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Term
| Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions |
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Definition
| Associated with nullification, these acts asserted that the states held the power to judge the constitutionality of federal laws. These were passed in response to the Alien and Sedition acts under Adam's presidency. |
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Term
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Definition
| The election of 1800 saw power change from Adam's Federalists to Jefferson's Anti-Federalists. For the first time in world history, power changed between political parties peacefully with no violence. |
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Term
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Definition
| Allowed voters to vote for a party ticket, rather than having the second place candidate take the vice-presidency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Before Adams turned power over to Jefferson, he filled as many government offices with Federalists as he possibly could. Jefferson responded by refusing to accept many of the appointments, which came to a head in Marbury vs. Madison. |
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Term
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Definition
| Jefferson refused to accept the appointment of Marbury to the federal bench of the supreme court. Marbury sued to receive his appointment. The court, headed by John Marshall, established Judicial Review in this court case and strengthened the Judicial Branch. |
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Term
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Definition
| France was convinced to abandon real interest in the New World, and offered to sell the whole of Louisiana for 15,000,000 dollars. Jefferson, a strict constitutionalist, was in a dilemma - not wanting to risk expanding the federal government or risk not taking the French up on their offer. Ultimately, he purchased Louisiana by claiming presidential right to negotiate treaties. |
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Term
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Definition
| Crazy guy who ran for president against Jefferson and lost. He then ran for governor of New York and lost, challenged Hamilton to a duel, killed him, fled to Louisiana where he tried to start his own nation, was captured and accused of treason, and then acquitted. |
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Term
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Definition
| In response to British attacks on US shipping to France and British impressment of US Sailors, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act of 1807 which shut down American imports from and exports to France and England. |
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Term
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Definition
| In response to British attacks on American shipping, the War Hawks in congress, including Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, asked for President Madison to declare war on England. Madison did, and the war of 1812 began. The war went badly for the Americans for the most part, but it did have one large positive outcome. It spurred American manufacturing. Cut off from trade to Europe, Americans became more self-sufficient by necessity. |
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Term
| Henry Clay's "American System" |
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Definition
| A system of improvements to interstate roads (Including the expansion of the National Road from Maryland to Ohio), an increase in protective tariffs, and the rechartering of the National Bank. |
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Term
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Definition
| Court case which said that states could not tax the national government, thus establishing precedence of national law over state law. |
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Term
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Definition
| After the demise of the federalist party, the USA briefly was left with only one major political party. This Era lasted roughly from 1816 - 1819, when debate over the national bank, tariffs, and sectional tension over slavery became more prevalent. |
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Term
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Definition
| First major economic panic the USA faced. Was a result of over-speculation and inflation, and caused many in the west to resent the national bank and certain economic practices. |
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Term
| Adams-Onis Treaty / Transcontinental Treaty |
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Definition
| Under John Q. Adams, the USA acquired control of Florida from Spain. |
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Term
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Definition
| One of the most important "doctrines" on foreign policy in United States History. This doctrine asserted that the USA had authority in the Western Hemisphere, and warned European Nations that the Hemisphere was closed to further colonization. |
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Term
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Definition
First in a series of compromised stalling the civil war, the Missouri Compromise:
1) Admitted Missouri as a slave state
2) Admitted Maine as a free state
3) Established the 36'30' parallel as the northernmost line where slavery would be allowed in the United States. |
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Term
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Definition
| Election between Crawford, John Q. Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson. None of them won a majority of the votes, so the decision went to congress where it was stalled. Eventually, in what came to be known as the "Corrupt Bargain," Clay resigned and campaigned for Adams, who won, and then named Clay to be Secretary of State. Jackson's supporters were not happy, because Jackson had won the most popular votes, and they felt the will of the American people was being thwarted by corrupt politics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Jackson wanted universal male suffrage, meaning the extension of the right to vote to all white males, regardless of if they owned property or not. Jacksonian Democracy is also characterized by a strong presidency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Passed by Andrew Jackson in 1830, the Indian Removal Act called upon natives to relocate to designated Indian Territories to the west. |
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Term
| Tariff of 1828 / Tariff of Abominations |
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Definition
| Passed during the Adam's administration, turned into a problem during the Jackson Presidency. Some states in the south wanted to nullify the tariff in 1830. Jackson, though a supporter of state's rights, thought nullification was too much, and threatened to call in troops to enforce the tariff. |
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Term
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Definition
| Jackson's policy designed to end speculation on land, required buyers to buy land with "hard cash" - gold or silver - which created overall economic hardship. Congress overturned the measure near the end of Jackson's term. |
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Term
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Definition
| Most famous of the slave revolts, this rebellion resulted in the deaths of 60 whites and 200 slaves. This rebellion led to a series of restrictive laws, known as Black Codes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inventor of the cotton gin and interchangeable parts in manufacturing. His inventions revolutionized the process of manufacturing arms, among other things. |
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Term
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Definition
| Working system which guaranteed workers housing, cash wages, and enticed many workers to work in New England mills and textile industry. |
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Term
| Transportation Revolution |
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Definition
| In the mid 1800s. The National Road from Maryland to Ohio was constructed, New York completed the Erie Canal, which linked Western farmers to New England merchants, the first railroads were being constructed (Though construction of rails didn't really "pick up steam" until the Post-Civil War Era), and clipper ships and steamships helped speed up transportation between Europe and America so that the journey could be taken in 10 days rather than a month. |
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Term
| Development of Sectionalism |
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Definition
North: Becoming industrialized. Farming played a small role, and the north became the nation's commercial and banking center. Slavery was illegal.
South: Almost entirely agrarian. Looking to protect the institution of slavery by strengthening the position of slave states in congress.
West: Economic interest were varied, but generally had to do with commercial farming. Distrust for the north, because they felt the northern banks were unfair to westerners. Many in the midwest became more connected to the north due to the expansion of canals and a better system of rails in the northern states. |
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Term
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Definition
| These tariffs were typically supported by the northerns, because they helped reduce competition for American goods. The south typically opposed these tariffs because the tariffs hurt their agrarian economies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Belief that women ought to keep house and raise children, rather than work as wage earners. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that the institution of slavery was beneficial for all involved - including the slaves. |
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Term
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Definition
| People who traveled to the western territories, ignored rules governing the purchase of land, and just made claims on land without paying. |
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Term
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Definition
| A second period of religious revivalism as a reaction against rationalism. Began in the north in the "Burned-over" district. Saw the formation of temperance societies, founding of the Mormons, the Brook Farm - an experimental community of transcendentalists, and laws regarding orphanages, asylums, and penitentiaries. |
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Term
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Definition
| An 1865 woman's rights convention held in Seneca Falls, New York, where Stanton and Mott, along with other reformers, published their Declaration of the Rights and Sentiments of Women, which they modeled after the Declaration of Independence. 4 years later, the National Women's Suffrage Association was founded. |
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Term
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Definition
| Instrumental advocate for public education reform in general. He lengthened the school year, used the first standardized books in education, and is noted for his firm belief that "Education is the great equalizer." |
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Term
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Definition
| Author of a popular abolitionist paper - The Liberator. He fought for immediate emancipation, and his works were eventually banned in the southern states. |
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Term
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Definition
| Author of the influential abolitionist paper "The North Star." Douglass was an outspoken advocate of freedom and equality. He went on to become the first black ambassador from the United States to a foreign nation - Haiti. |
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Term
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Definition
| Female abolitionist. Escaped slave who returned to the south multiple times to help slaves escape to free states via. the underground railroad. |
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Term
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Definition
| Charismatic speaker who campaigned for women's rights and emancipation for all slaves. |
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Term
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Definition
| The campaign slogan for the democrats in the election of 1844. James K. Polk ran for the democrats as a major expansionist and won the election against Henry Clay. 54 Forty was a reference to the desired parallel to draw the boarder between the USA and British Colombia, which is deep in modern day Canadian Territory. Polk eventually compromised with England, not wanting to fight both England and Mexico over territory at once, and drew the boarder at the 49th parallel, where it stands today. |
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Term
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Definition
Man sent to negotiate with Mexico to avert the Mexian-American War. He was mandated to 1) Persuade Mexico to sell California and New Mexico, and 2) settle a dispute concerning the Texas-Mexican boarder.
His mission, obviously, failed, and we ended up at war with Mexico. |
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Term
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Definition
| A proposed bill that would have outlawed slavery in the Mexican territories the United States annexed after the Mexican-American war. The fact that it failed let to the formation of the Free-Soil Party, a party solely devoted to the goals of the Wilmont Proviso. Often cited as the first major legislation proving that neither the north or south would be willing to give in regarding the institution of slavery. |
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Term
| Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo |
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Definition
| Another name for the Mexican Cession of 1848, in which Mexico ceded California and New Mexico, Nevada and Utah, as well as Arizona, to the USA. |
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Term
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Definition
| Popular Sovereignty means that the territories themselves would decide, by vote, whether to allow slavery in their borders. |
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Term
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Definition
| Polk offered to buy Cuba from Spain for 100,000,000 dollars, which Spain refused initially. The purchase was opposed by abolitionists in the north. Later, in 1852, Piece attempted to secretly negotiate with Spain for the purchase of Cuba. The planned secret purchase, drawn up in Osted, Belgium, was leaked to the public and provoked an angry response from anti-slavery members of Congress. |
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Term
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Definition
| Wanting to check each other from the opportunity to unilaterally build a canal through central America, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty said that neither nation would attempt to build a Central American Canal on their own. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piece purchased what is now southern New Mexico and southern Arizona from Mexico for 10,000,000 dollars. This semi-desert land was used to construct a railroad. |
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Term
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Definition
| The midcentury economic boom ended in 1857 with a financial panic. There was a serious drop in prices, especially for western farmers, and increased unemployment in northern cities. The south was less affected, because cotton remained strong. This gave some southerners the idea that their plantation economy was superior and that continued union with the northern economy was not needed. |
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Term
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Definition
| A conflict between rival groups of lumberjacks over the ill-defined boundary between Maine and Canada. This war ended with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, in which the disputed territory was split between the USA and UK. The treaty also settled the boundary of the Minnesota territory. |
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Term
| Causes of Conflict Between North and South |
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Definition
1) Slavery, a growing moral issue in the North verse its defense and expansion in the South.
2) Constitutional Disputes over the nature of the federal rights vs. states' rights.
3)Economic Differences between the industrialized north and an agricultural south. |
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Term
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Definition
The "Omnibus Bill" was drafted in 1850 by Henry Clay. This compromised planned to do the following to reduce sectional tensions.
1)Admit California as a free state
2)Divide the mexican cession into two territories - Utah and New Mexico - and allow these states to decide slavery via. Popular Sovereignty.
3)Ban Slave TRADE in Washington DC
4)Adopt a new, strong, fugitive slave law and enforce it rigorously.
5)Give land disputed between New Mexico and Texas to New Mexico and have the federal government in return assume Texas's state debt. |
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Term
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Definition
| Written by Harriet Beacher Stowe, this book was influential in turning public opinion in the north against slavery. |
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Term
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Definition
| Boldest and best known of pro-slavery authors, he argued that slavery was a positive good for both slave and master. He attacked capitalism as worse than slavery. |
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Term
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Definition
| Application of popular sovereignty to the territory of Kansas. Kansas became known as "bleeding Kansas" because of conflict between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces in the territories. This act essentially repealed the Compromise of 1820, which established the 36''30' parallel as the northern boundary of slavery possible in the territories. It renewed sectional tensions that had been somewhat resolved by the Compromise of 1850. |
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Term
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Definition
| A party that arose in the north as a single issue party. They were also known as the "American Party," and were hostile to the immigrants who were arriving the northern cities in large numbers. |
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Term
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Definition
| People who crossed the boarder into Kansas to vote for slavery in the territory. Some border ruffians attacked and killed some abolitionists in the anti-slavery leaning town of Lawrence, Kansas. |
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Term
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Definition
| Senator who verbally attacked slavery in congress. In response, a southern senator beat him with a cane in Congress. |
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Term
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Definition
| An Ohio Quaker who helped many runaway slaves escape by crossing the boarder river between the slave state of Kentucky and the free state of Ohio. |
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Term
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Definition
| Large Slave Rebellion in which Nat Turner led a group of slaves in open revolt, killing approximately 60 whites. This massacre was responded to in kind by whites who captured and executed Nat Turner. |
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Term
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Definition
| Supreme Court Case in which the Supreme Court declared that a fugitive slave law was in fact constitutional. |
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Term
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Definition
| Northern fear that a few southern slaveholders had far for political control than they should have. Slave Power was often sited as the reason for the failure of legislation such as the Wilmot Proviso, which would have banned slavery from territory taken in the Mexican Cession. |
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Term
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Definition
| First person of African Origin to have poetry published in North America. |
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Term
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Definition
| Black author of the pamphlet "The Appeal" - where Walker advocated fighting for freedom from slavery, even if it means death or the need to kill white slaveholders. His work caused many southern states to ban pro-slavery literature. |
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Term
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Definition
| Fanatical and violent abolitionist, John Brown attempted to start a general slave revolt in Virginia in 1859. He was captured and executed, but hailed as a martyr by anti-slavery northerners. |
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Term
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Definition
| A last ditch constitutional amendment proposed by Senator John Crittenden of Kentucky which would have guarenteed the right to hold slaves in all territory south of the 36''30 parallel line. Lincoln refused to accept the compromise because it went against the Republican position on slavery, which called for no extension of slavery into the territories. |
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Term
| New England Emigrant Aid Company |
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Definition
| Company that provided aid to people who were willing to settle in Kansas and vote in favour of establishing a state free of slavery. This occurred during the "Bleeding Kansas" controversy. |
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Term
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Definition
| First and Only (And Last) President of the Confederate States of America. Davis was a senior senator from Mississippi before the south succeeded. |
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Term
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Definition
| First and only (and last) vice president of the Confederate States of America. Stephens was a senior senator from Georgia prior to succession. |
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Term
| Use Of Federal Power During The Civil War |
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Definition
| Lincoln acted without Congress to call for a Union Army after Fort Sumter. He authorized funding for the war, revoked habeas corpus, used martial law in Maryland to keep it in the Union. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plan by Winfield Scott, a commander of the Union in the Civil War, which called for the faithful US Navy to blockade southern ports, cutting off essential supplies from reaching the south. |
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Term
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Definition
| Abraham Lincoln's resolutions regarding the Mexican-American War. Lincoln challenged Polk to point out on a map the SPOT where "American Blood Was Spilled On American Soil." |
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Term
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Definition
| A very prominent gold mine in California established after the Mexican-American War. Sutter's Mill was largely populated by northerners, which is significant, because very quickly a majority of Californians were anti-slavery. This contributed to California's decision to apply as a free state. |
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Term
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Definition
| Man who proposed the idea of popular sovereignty for deciding the admission of states into the Union. |
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Term
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Definition
| Author of "12 Years A Slave," a book about a free black living in the north who was illegitimately captured under the fugitive slave law and brought south to work as a slave for 12 years. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposed constitution for the state of Kansas, would have given women equal rights with men, was viewed as too radical and not endorsed by the people of Kansas. |
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Term
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Definition
| Committee To Reelect The President. CREEP was a committee formed to help reelect President Nixon following his first term. Creep was behind Watergate. Ish. |
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Term
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Definition
| University of Mississippi was ordered by law to integrate, and James Maredeth was the first African American accepted who attended the school. |
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Term
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Definition
| Governor of Alabama who made a speech about how it was against states rights for the federal government to force states to integrate their school systems. |
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Term
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Definition
| Extreme group of blacks who thought they were "Heirs to Malcom X." Lead by Newton Seale, they became a militant, pro-communist, pro-black self reliance, pro violent-revolution, ect. |
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| Workers hired from Mexico during WWII to take jobs that were vacant. |
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| First black member of a presidential cabinet. 1964. |
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| The author of the Feminine Mystique. President's commission on the status of women. |
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| First women member of the supreme court. |
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