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made popular by Edward B. Titchener (who was actually a student of Wundt). Titchener taught subjects to introspect, or look inside themselves to describe their experiences to stimuli he presented to the.
-this movement had several problems however: Every subject is different, and no two results are the same; it is limited to only studying adults, since you can't ask children or animals to introspect; it is impossible to use this to study complicated issues in psychology such as sleeping (you can't introspect in your sleep), abnormal psychology, or development.
-idea died soon after Titchener did. |
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-started by William James
-work like computers; receive input (sensory) and the output is a different state of mind(feeling) and resulting behaviors.
-James theorized that we feel afraid AFTER noticing physiological symptoms of fear (sweaty palms, shakiness, and rapid breath)
-no based solely on introspection(like structuralism was); instead included broader methods of collecting data such as naturalistic observation.
-Didn't seek to break consciousness into its structural components, but explained it as an ongoing process of living and interacting with the world.
-not a very adequate method for covering advanced psychological thinking |
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-developed by John Watson and then shaped by Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner.
-psychologists should study only stimuli and responses. Skinner added element of reinforcement. |
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-Sigmund Freud; studied unconscious thought and behavior; believed adult personality and behavior are shaped form past experiences, especially uncomfortable experiences in childhood.
-repressed memories
-Freudian slip
-unconscious thoughts/memories could be explored and supposedly cured by Freud's psychotherapy. If left untreated, could lead to psychological disorders. |
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-developed through the separate contributions of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
-suggest behavior and human psychological development were results of both external stimuli (behaviorist-style) and off choice, free will, and self-reflection.
-people are products of their environment, and are driven internally to reach fullest potential.
-in direct contrast to determinism (which suggests all new behaviors are caused by past conditioning.
-congruency: when congruent we=our best selves. |
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a pioneering woman who refused to play by men's rules.
-denied PhD that she had earned from Harvard because she was a woman.
-rejected offer of lesser degree from its undergraduate sister school for women.
-created the paired-associates technique for studying memory, which consisted of learning to remember one word by associating it with another.
-triumphantly became the American Psychological Association's first female president in 1905. |
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-natural selection
-evolution
-1800s
-evolutionary psychologists/sociobiologists rely on his work |
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Feisty nurse turned groundbreaking therapy activist.
-through vicious state lobbying, she created the first generation of mental hospitals to offer more human methods of psychological treatment.
-superintendent of army nurses during civil war |
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-studied unconscious
-psychoanalysis |
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-one of the first psychologists to analyze adolescence
-described adolescence as-a result of the tension between biological maturity and social dependence.
-student of Wilhelm Wundt's and established what is considered to be the first American psychology association at Johns Hopkins University in 1883 |
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-American psychologist
-worked at Harvard on ideas that eventually became the school of thought known as functionalism.
-considered the Father of American Psychology.
-wrote "Principles of Psychology"(1890)= which became first psychology textbook.
-book dealt with emotion, human sensation and perception and memory.
-believed consciousness evolved because it was useful for something.
-believed to understand the origins and purpose of a psychological occurrence, we must look into its use. |
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-dog
-bell;dog;food;conditioning experiment
-helped shape behaviorism |
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one of the stage theorists (believe we develop in distinct stages).
-based on a cognitive approach to
development and is more widely used today
-originator of the cognitive-development theory.
-constructed model that theorizes the way children interpret the world in distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations |
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-contributed to development of the humanistic view in psychology
-all about congruency(agreement/harmony between out physical experience and the understanding of who we are. |
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-pigeon
-helped shape behaviorism
-added element of reinforcement to ideas of behaviorism. |
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-championed women who were denied recognition for their academic achievement (like Mary Whiton Calkins)
-First woman to receive a PhD in psychology
-best known for her synthesis of animal behavior in "The Animal Mind" (1908) |
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-started behaviorism
-declared that studying experimental findings and observable phenomena was the only way that psychology could ever be considered a science. |
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-considered founder of the discipline of psychology.
-strong believer in studying human behavior and mental processes separately from biological processes.
-certain he could use scientific method to create experiments that would explain psychological phenomena in humans.
-experiment: asked people how long it took for them to see and hear a bell ringing.
-1879: opened world's first psychological research laboratory at university of Leipzig in Germany.
-first person to define psychology as the study of consciousness and conscious behavior. |
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-focuses on the physiology of the brain and the interaction of biological processes with the outside world.
-says your hormones, genes, neurotransmitters/neurochemistry, and immune system influence your thoughts and behavior.
-became especially popular in 1970's with invention of psychoactive drugs. |
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-invented by Lightner Witmer
-most widely practiced form
-includes science, theory, and knowledge
-focused on determining the cause of a mental abnormality or disorder and well as on prevention and treatment that may include the administration of medical treatment but not medication.
-focuses on both psychological assessment and psychotherapy. Draws from and uses: psychodynamic/psychoanalytic;humanistic;behavioral;cognitive |
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-1960s wave of research introduced support for new approach focused on cognition (focused specifically on the mind)
-psychologists of this field focus on how people process information from the outside world and internalize it to fit their own needs. |
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-created by the Veterans Administration after WWII to train U.S. military
-after, became school of thought in university programs where it expanded to include categories: social; educational; developmental; vocational issues. |
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-examines cognitive, physical, and social change throughout the life of an individual.
-nature vs. nurture= key element
-subsections: prenatal influences on development; motor/sensory development; parenting; stage theories; cognitive development; gender.
-use two primary research methods: cross-sectional and longitudinal |
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-the psychology of teaching.
-the discipline of how individuals learn in educational environments, and the social psychology of learning in schools. |
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-an area of the field that focuses on using a scientific method to research behavior and the mind
-findings drive new types of therapy, help suggest better treatment for different conditions, and allow the field of psychology to grow and change. |
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| psychologists in this area help design environments and machines that enforce our natural perceptions rather than confuse them. Examines how we rely upon "natural mapping" to use tools and function day to day. |
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| Industrial-Organizational Psychology |
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-subsection of the motivational approach to psychology studies the way motivation can affect achievement in a work environmeent.
-specifically examine how managers can promote teamwork, match the right people with the right jobs, create morale-boosting environment that encourages achievement, and evaluate performance.
-more successful work environments are created with encouragement of intrinsic motivation, not a strict system of extrinsic awards and punishments. |
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defined as the distinctive traits- perceptions, behaviors, and emotions- that are characteristic of a person.
-four primary approaches to this study: psychoanalytic approach; trait perspective; humanistic approach; and social-cognitive approach. |
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examines the theory and technique of psychological measurement, including the validation of instruments, surveys, and tests.
-Founded by Francis Galton in the beginning of 20th C. then furthered developed by L.L. Thurstone: devised theoretical approach to measurement called law of comparative judgement. involves the statistical method of factor analysis, more commonly known as pairwise comparison. |
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| examines the way we perceive, influence, and relate to one another. |
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| naturalistic observations |
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| Variables (independent, dependent, confounding, control) |
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-independent: variable manipulated/changed by experimenter
-dependent: measurable variable that is altered as a result of the altered independent variable. |
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| Afferent/ sensory nerve fiber |
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| Motor/efferent nerve fiber |
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| Nervous system (central and peripheral including somatic, autonomic, sympathetic, and parasympathetic) |
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-all about brain function
-makes picture of brain but ALSO shows what areas are most active by tracing blood flow; more active areas require and receive more blood
-used to determine which areas of the brain perk up more during certain activities. |
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X-rays of the brain
=3D images
-can be used to study brain structures and check for lesions or abnormal growths, like tumors.
-will NOT tell us anything about brain function |
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Electroencephalogram
-performed by attaching leads to a person's head and recording brainwaves from the large numbers of firing neurons that are being emitted.
-won't generate a picture, but will provide a graph that shows brainwave patterns and rhythms
-Researchers mostly use these to study differnt stages of sleep and dreaming, as well as seizures in patients with conditions like epilepsy. |
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Positron Emission Technology
-let researchers study brain function along with structure
-depending on radioactive tracer injected, these scans allow researchers to study all types of different processes in the brain (from glucose to dopamine to amyloid plaque buildup from Alzheimer's disease.)
-can tell us a lot about brain activity. |
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| Brain hemispheres (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal) |
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frontal-mainly responsible for cognitive thought and planning. helps control behavior such as paying attention, planning, and making decisions. Primary motor cortex (strip of brain responsible for controlling movements in each part of the body) is located in frontal lobe. Broca's area located here
-Temporal-contain auditory cortices that help process sound. Wernicke's area located here
-Parietal-operating system of the brain. Information enters the body's sensory systems and is then directed to the appropriate processing area. Contains the somatosensory cortex (strip of cortex right behind the motor cortex that is responsible for integrating sensory information from the body-touch, texture, heat, cold
-occipital-located at back of head and is mainly responsible for vision. Contains the primary visual cortex (receives input form the eys and then consturcts and interprets the image) specialized cells in this region respond to direction, shape, and angle. |
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French physician who discovered in 1865 that damage to a specific area in the left frontal lobe made it difficult to form words. That section was later named Broca's area and it controls the muscle movements that enable the production of speech.
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| a leading researchre and professor in cognitive neuroscience, realized the degree to which our brains can war with themselves. He is widely known for his split-brain research in teh 1960s. |
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| Neuropsychologis who conducted split-brain research alongside Gazzanigga and eventually won teh Nobel Prize in 1981. His research led to what we now know as left brain/right brain dichotomy |
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| German neuropathologist that Wernicke's area is named after |
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| learning (latent, observational, and insight) |
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| the mechanics of attention |
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| the development of language |
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| memory (short versus long-term, procedural, explicit versus implicit) |
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| primary versus secondary reinforcers |
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| William James (Motivation&Emotion) |
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| Alfred Kinsey (Motivation&Emotion |
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| motor and cognitive development |
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| adolescence, and adulthood |
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| temperament and moral development |
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| cultural, religious, and gender identity |
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| fitting new information into existing schema. Idea for Piaget. ex: all four-legged animals are "doggies" |
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| Albert Bandura (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Sigmund Freud (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Carol Gilligan (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Harry Harlow (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Lawrence Kohlberg (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Konrad Lorenz (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Jean Piaget (Developmental Psychology) |
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| Lev Vygotsky (Developmental Psychology) |
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Theories of Personality:
1)Behavioral
2)Social
3)Cognitive
4)Trait
5)Psychoanalytic
6)Humanist
7)Learning |
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| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) |
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| Thematic Aperception Test (TAT) |
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| Alfred Adler (personality) |
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| Albert Bandura (personality) |
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| Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (personality) |
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| Sigmund Freud (personality) |
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| Abraham Maslow (personality) |
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| Carl Rogers (personality) |
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| Abstract (fluid) versus crystallized intelligence |
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| methods of standardization |
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| Alfred Binet (testing and individual differences) |
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| Francis Galton (testing and individual differences) |
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| Howard Gardner (testing and individual differences) |
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| Charles Spearman (testing and individual differences) |
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| Robert Sternberg (testing and individual differences) |
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| Louis Terman (testing and individual differences) |
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| David Wechsler (testing and individual differences) |
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| obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) |
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| Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) |
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| major depressive disorders |
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| dissociative identity disorder |
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| psychotherapeutic intervention (humanistic, behavioral, cognitive) |
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| group versus individual therapy |
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| electorconvulsive therapy (ECT) |
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| Aaron Beck (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| Albert Ellis (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| Mary Cover Jones (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| Carl Rogers (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| B.F. Skinner (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| Joseph Wolpe (treatment of abnormal behavior) |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| Solomon Asch (social psychology) |
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| the ability to think or consider how we feel and relate to others. Unique to humans |
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| look inside self to describe experiences to stimuli presented with. |
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-student of Wundt
-made structuralism popular
-relied heavily on introspection
-viewed a stimulus as: anything in the external world that can be experienced by one of the 5 senses. |
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| the study of animals in their natural, undisturbed habitat. |
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psychologists of this method, such as Max Wertheimer didn't separate thought and behavior.
-a person's whole experience is greater than the individual pieces.
-patients encouraged to understand their difficulties by putting them in context.
-does not constitute a large part of current psychological methods. |
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-Freud
-selectively eliminating painful memories from conscious memory.
-believed by Freud to cause conflict with normal consciousness and have potential to surface in dreams, phobias, or slips of the tongue. |
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| an error of speech that expresses someone's unconscious or repressed thought. |
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| selectively encouraging or discouraging particular behaviors |
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| physical reactions to occurrences |
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| invented in 1970s and used to treat conditions like depression and schizophrenia |
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representative mental frameworks created by people to help them make sense of information.
-language, development, memory, perception, and social interaction
-cognitive psychology |
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| harmful substances from the environment that can harm a fetus if ingested by mother (alcohol and drugs) |
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| Cross-sectional versus longitudinal research |
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the two primary research methods of developmental psychologists
-cross-sectional: examines different age groups for one research topic
-longitudinal: tracks one group of individuals over different stages in their lives. |
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| foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
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| the tendency to agree with a large request after agreeing with a smaller one |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| our tendency to neglect situational influences and make false, generalized assertions about others' personalities. |
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| adjust our behavior to fit with the expectations of society |
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when political mishaps result from normative group decision-making processes.
-two famous examples: the launch of the space shuttles Challenger and Columbia-separate instances: where NASA officials ignored engineers' concerns and decided to proceed with the launch anyway. (did not end well) |
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What Piaget believed to be a child's portal to the world.
-cognitive rules used to interpret a child's surroundings and assimilate new information. |
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| can't remember new stuff after head injury (50 first dates) |
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| can't remember stuff before injury |
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| systematic desensitization |
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| behavior therapy used to reduce client's anxiety responses-bad paired with good. step by step (ex spider) |
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therapy-behavior therapy in which an aversive stimulus is paired to elicit an undesirable response-bad with bad)
EX: everytime desire to smoke, take whiff of horrid smelling contents. |
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Definition
| level needed to see it 50% of time |
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| Just-noticeable-difference (JND) |
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| perceive change in stimulus level-music level) how do you know that its louder? can you perceive a change? |
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| test measures a particular hypothetical concept-creativity, IQ, extraversion: when you have created the question does this test measure that question? |
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| content of a test is representative of the domain it is supposed to cover-stuff on test from that chapter) |
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| language and logic, where cognitive dissonance is resolved |
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| divides two hemispheres of brain |
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| covers the brain, outer layer of brain |
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| Ventromedial Hypothalamus |
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| suppresses hunger(rat that can not suppress hunger= always hungry and so eat and eat and eat and get 3 times as big) |
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| The simple act of putting someone in a group and conducting an experiment on him or her can lead to behavioral changes in that person. |
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| Experimenter bias (or a super special, situation-relevant confounding variable) |
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| the researcher has an unconscious attitude that affects her treatment of the participants. |
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| participant bias (or a confounding variable) |
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| subjects try to please the experimenter |
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| an effect in which the participants begin to interpret the purpose of the experiment and act differently as a result |
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| neither experimenter nor participants/subjects know who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group |
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| only the experimenter has full knowledge of who's in each group. |
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a calculated number that indicates how strong the relationship is between variables
-range of -1 to 1.
-0 shows no relationship at all; the further away from zero, the stronger the correlation
-if negative then there is a negative correlation (one variable increases as the other variable decreases)
-if the number is positive,a positive correlation exists (the two variables shift in the same direction) |
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| any results that don't fit in with the others and land in the extreme areas indstead. |
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how far a point is from the mean in terms of the standard deviation
-can be positive or negative depending on whether it falls on the positive or negaitve side of the mean. |
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| old technique of drilling holes in people's skulls to let the evil spirits out. |
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oldest part of brain, "reptillian brain". sits in back, toward bottom and connects the spinal cord wiht the rest of the brain.
-formed by 3 main structures: medula, cerebellum, and pons |
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| responsible for controlling basic autonomic instincts that keep people alive (breathing, digesting food, sneezing, vomiting) |
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looks like mini version of brain and consists of branch-like cells that are responsible for coordinating movement
-drinking too much alcohol or taking certain types of medicines represses activity of cerebellum |
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connects hindbrain to the rest of the brain.
-acts as a bridge that relays information between the two. also helps form a smile or a frown. |
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next oldest part of brain after hindbrain.
-processes and relays sensory info. from the eyes and ears. It helps us orient toward a sound or a point in our visual field |
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newest part of the brain.
-structures in this region help plan, reason, control emotions, and form all of those misty-colored memories. |
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-sits on top of the brain stem
-responsible for relaying sensory and motor info. between cortex and body |
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| sits just below thalamus and is an important control element in metabolic functioning. helps regulate eating and sleeping patterns, sexual desire, aggression, and fear. |
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| small protrusion that releases certain hormones such as growth hormone and prolactin. |
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small structure that vaguely resembles a seahorse.
-essential fo rthe formation and storage of memories. Alzheimer's disease destroys the cells in this area |
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| small structure that is involved in emotion and enables us to learn, especially in an emotional environment. |
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