Term
| the world view of the medieval and early modern Europe |
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Definition
| primarily religious and theological |
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Term
| how the transformation took place |
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Definition
| -the economically secure and well educated upper and comfortable classes interacted with talented writers and as a result, ofter came to see the world in a primarily secular and scientific terms |
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Term
| with whom did the transformation take place? |
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Definition
| the aristocracy and solid middle class(the upper and comfortable classes) |
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Term
| the scientific effects upon science? |
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Definition
| it became independent and primary for some people in the 18th century |
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Term
| the effects of the scientific revolution? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-a greek philosopher of the 4th century B.C.
-european ideas about the universe were based on his ideas |
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Term
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Definition
| they dominated thinking about physics and motion on earth |
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Term
| why was aristotle accepted for two thousand years? |
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Definition
-they offered an understandable commonsense explanation for what the eye actually saw
-it established a home for God and a place for Christian souls |
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Term
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Definition
-a Polish clergyman and astronomer
-saw how professional astronomers depended on the work of Ptolemy for accurate calculations |
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Term
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Definition
-the last great ancient astronomer
-achievement was to work out complicated rules to explain the minor irregularities in the movements of the planets |
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Term
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Definition
-the year of Copernicus's death
-when Copernicus published his book called On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| the 3 implications of the Copernican hypothesis |
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Definition
-it put the stars at rest, their nightly movement was a result of the earth's rotation
-his theory suggested a universe of staggering size
-he destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics-that the earthly world was different from the heavenly one |
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Term
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Definition
| -the Catholic church declared that the copernican hypothesis was false |
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Term
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Definition
| -a new star appeared and shone brightly for almost 2 years |
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Term
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Definition
| -a new comet moved through the sky, cutting a straight path across the inpenetrable crystal spheres |
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Term
| Brahe & his contributions & beliefs |
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Definition
-a Danish astronomer
-built the most sophisticated observatory of his time
-his greatest contribution was his mass of data
-believed that all the planets revovled around the sun and that the entire group of sun and planets revovled around the earth-moon system |
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Term
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Definition
-Brahe's assistant
-demonstrated in 1609 that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular
-demonstrated that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits
-in 1619, he showed that the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is related to its distance from the sun |
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Term
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Definition
-proved the precise relations of a sun-centered (solar) system
-his work demolished the old system of Aristotle and Ptolemy
-in his 3rd law, he came close to formulating the idea of universal gravitation |
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Term
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Definition
-challenged the old ideas about motion
-examined motion and mechanics in a new way |
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Term
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Definition
-used by Galileo
-conducting controlled experiments to find out what actually did happen |
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Term
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Definition
| -where Galileo described his pathbreaking method and conclusion of his acceleration experiment |
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Term
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Definition
-another law of Galileo
-an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force |
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Term
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Definition
-invented in Holland
-Galileo made his own and trained it on the heavens |
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Term
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Definition
-in 1610
-Galileo's book which describes his account of the moon through his telescope |
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Term
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Definition
| -the issue regarding Galileo's work was presented to Pope Urban VIII, who permitted Galileo to write about different possible systems of the world as long as he did not presume to judge which one actually existed |
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Term
| Diologue on the Two Chief Systems of the World |
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Definition
-in 1632
-after this publication, Galileo was tried for heresy by the papal Inquisition
-it lampooned the traditional views of Aristotle and Ptolemy and defended those of Copernicus |
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Term
| Newton & his accomplishment |
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Definition
-to integrat in a single explanatory system the astronomy of Copernicus
-did this by a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics |
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Term
| Descartes's first discovery |
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Definition
-in mathematics
-he noticed a correspondence between geometry and algebra |
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Term
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Definition
| -Descartes's view of the world as consisting of two fundamental entitles |
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Term
| the modern scientific method |
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Definition
| -conbined Bacon's inductive experimentalism and Descartes's deductive, mathematical reasoning |
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Term
| the role of religion in the development of science |
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Definition
-a fundamental factor in the rise of modern science
-Protestantism made scientific inquiry a question of individual conscience and not of a religious doctrine |
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Term
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Definition
| -after, the Counter-Reformation church became hostile to science, a change that helped account for the decline of science in Italy |
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Term
| the international science community |
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Definition
-the rise of modern science went hand in hand with this
-members were linked together by common interests and shared values as well as by journals and the learned scientific societies founded in many countries in the later 17th and 18th centuries |
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Term
| the modern scientific method |
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Definition
| -it refused to base its conclusions on tradition and established sources on ancient authorities and sacred texts |
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Term
| an intellectual revolution |
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Definition
| -the scientific revolution of the 17th century was this |
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Term
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Definition
| -the Latin version of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosopy in 1687 |
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Term
| law of universal gravitation |
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Definition
-the key feature of the Newtonian synthesis
-every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship |
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Term
| the 1st 3 factors contributing to the scientific revolution |
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Definition
-the long-term contrubution of medieval universities
-the Renaissance stimulated scientific progress
-the navigational problems of long sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion |
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Term
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Definition
| the problem of fixing this was much more difficult then that of latitude |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-the telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump
-they permitted more accurate observations |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| -argued that new knowledge had to be persued through empirical, experimental research |
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Term
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Definition
| the general theory of inductive reasoning |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the scientific revolution was the most important factor of this |
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Term
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Definition
-nothing should be accepted on faith
-everything was to be submitted to the ration, critical, scientific way of thinking
-the scientific method was used |
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Term
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Definition
| -Enlightenment thinkers believed that it was at least possible for human beings to create better societies and better people |
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Term
| chacteristics and impact of the Enlightenment |
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Definition
-it was secular
-it revived and expanded the Renaissance concentration on worldly expalantions
-impact-
-thought and culture of the urban middle classes and the aristocracy
-did not appeal to urban poor and peasants |
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Term
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Definition
-most famous and influencial popluarizer
-a French man of letters
-set out to make science witty and entertaining for a broad nonscience audience
-skeptical about absolute truth and cynical about the claims of organized religion |
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Term
| Conversations on the Purality of Worlds |
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Definition
| -Fontenelle's most famous work |
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Term
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Definition
| -a skeptic and a French Huguenot |
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Term
| Historical and Critical Dictionary |
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Definition
-where Bayle examined the religious beliefs and persecutions of the past
-written in French and published in the Netherlands in 1697
-conclueded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt |
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Term
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Definition
-was that nothing can be known beyond doubt-was very influencial
-in religion and philosophy, humanity's best hope was open-minded toleration |
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Term
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Definition
-grew rapidly on non-European lands and cultures
-Europeans were learning that the peoples of China, India, Africa, and the Americas had their own beliefs and customs |
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Term
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Definition
-his Essay concerning Human Understanding was a 4th cause oand manifestation of European intellectual turmoil
-his essay set forth a new theory about how humans learn and form their ideas
-insisted that all ideas are derived from experience |
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Term
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Definition
-means a blank tablet
-what the human mind is like at birth |
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Term
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Definition
-proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures in an Age of Enlightenment
-a French word for "philosopher" |
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Term
| 3 reasons for the highest development in France |
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Definition
-French was the international language of the educated classes in the 18th century
-after Louis XIV's death, French absolutism and religious orthodoxy remained strong but not too strong
-the Fench philosophes were philosophers asking fundamental philosophical questions about the meaning of life, God, human nature, good and evil, and cause and effect |
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Term
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Definition
-the educated or enlightened public
-different than the commonpeople
-the elites |
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Term
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Definition
| -made a distinction between "the truely enlightened people" and "the blind and noisy multitude" |
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Term
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Definition
-wrote the Persian Letters in 1791
-wrote the Spirit of Laws in 1748 |
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Term
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Definition
-written by Montesquieu in 1791
-an extremely influencial social satire |
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Term
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Definition
-written by Montesquieu in 1748
-applied the critical method to the problem of the gov. |
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Term
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Definition
| -where political power whould be divided and shared by a variety of classes and legal estates holding unequal rights and privileges |
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Term
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Definition
| -all of his life he struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law |
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Term
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Definition
-an intellectually gifted woman from the high aristocracy with a passon for science
-studied physics and mathematics and published scientific articles and translations |
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Term
| Voltaire's best government |
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Definition
| -a good monarch, because humans "are very rarely worth to govern themselves" |
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Term
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Definition
-believed in God but it was a distant god
-hated all forms of religious interlance
-simple piety and human kindness were religion enough |
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Term
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Definition
| -the greatest and most representative intellectual achievement |
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Term
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Definition
-Denis Diderot
-d'Alembert |
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Term
| the Encyclopedia's editors goals |
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Definition
-set out to find coauthors who would examine the rapidly expanding whole of human knowledge
-set out to teach people how to think critically and objectively about all matters |
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Term
| the Encyclopedia's editors obstacles |
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Definition
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Term
| the Encyclopedia's effects |
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Definition
-science and industrial arts were exalted
-intolerance, legal injustice, and out-of-date social institutions were openly criticized
-writed of the encyclopedia shows that humans could use the process of reasoning to expand human knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
-published in 1770 by d'Holbach
-argued that humans were machinesdetermined by outside forces
-atheism |
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Term
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Definition
-one of the most important philosophes
-a Scottish phiosopher
-his carefully argued skepticism had a powerful long-term influence |
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Term
| Progress on the Human Mind |
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Definition
-by Condorcet
-written in 1793 during the French Revolution
-he hypothesized and tracked nine stages of human process that had already occued and predicted the tenth would bring perfection |
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Term
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Definition
| -a brilliant and different thinker |
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Term
| Rousseau's ideas and their influences |
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Definition
-committed to individual freedom
-atacked rationalism and civilization as destroying the individual
-the basic goodness of the individual had to be protected from the cruel refinements of civilization
-influences the early romantic movement
-also, a powerful impact on the development of child psycology and modern education |
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Term
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Definition
-published in 1762
-Rousseau contributed to political theory
-it was based on two fundamental concepts: the general will and popular sovereignty |
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Term
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Definition
-sacred and absolute
-reflects the common interests of all the people who have displaced the monarch as the holder of sovereign power |
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Term
| European market for books |
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Definition
-it grew in the 18th century
-an increase in literacy was partly responsible
-the middle class, the clergy, and the aristocracy accounted for most of the change |
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Term
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Definition
| -caused many books to be printed abroad and then smuggled back into the country for "under-the-cloak" sale |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-a professor in East Prussia and the greatest German philosopher of the age
-argued in 1784 that if serious thinkers were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, then enlightenment would almost surely follow |
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Term
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Definition
-Prussia's Ferderick the Great
-because he permitted freedom of the press |
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Term
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Definition
-elegant private drawing rooms
-in Paris, where talentsed and rich women presided |
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Term
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Definition
-an artistic style that was exercised among elite women
-soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids
-popular throughout Europ in the 18th century |
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Term
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Definition
| -owned one of the most famous salons |
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Term
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Definition
| -the ideas and debated issues formed by a diverse but educated public |
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Term
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Definition
| -the evolution of monarchial absolutism at close range |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| War of the Austrian Succession |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-1756-1763
-the aim of the alliance was to conquer Prussia and divide up its territory
-also known as the French and Indian War
-in the end, Peter III cam to the Russian throne in 1762 and called off the attack against Frederick
-England was the "big winner"
-England won |
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Term
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Definition
-allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in religious and philosophical matters
-promoted the advancement of knowledge
-tried to improve his subjects' lives more directly
-the legal system and bureaucracy were his primary tools
-after the 7 years' war, his government promoted the reconstruction of agriculture and industry in his war-torn country
-thus, he justified monarchy in terms of practical results and said nothing of the divine right of kings |
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Term
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Definition
| -urged that Jews be given freedom and civil rights |
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Term
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Definition
-one of the most remarkable rulers who ever lived
-from Russia
-French philosophes adored her |
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Term
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Definition
-when Peter the Great came to the throne
-he decided to withdraw Russian troops from the coalition against Prussia which alienated the army |
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Term
| Catherine the Great's goals |
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Definition
-she worked hard to bring the sophistocated culture of western Europ to Russia
-domestic reform
-territorical expansion |
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Term
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Definition
-in 1773, sparked a gigantic uprising of serfs
-issued "decrees" abolishing serfdom, taxes, and army servuce
-his untrained hordes eventually proved no match for Catherine's noble'led regular army |
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Term
| Pugachev's rebellion's effects |
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Definition
-a decisive turning point in Catherine's domestic policy
-it put an end to any illusions she might have about reforming the system |
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Term
| Catherine the Great's third goal? |
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Definition
-territorial expansion
-was very successful
-her armies subjugated the last descendeants of the Mongols, the Crimean Tartars, and gegan the conquest of the Caucasus |
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Term
| Catherine the Great's achievements |
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Definition
-kept the nobility happy
-it provided her with vast new lands to give her tfaithful servants and many lovers
-she lavished large estates with many serfs
-she crushed freedom for serfs |
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Term
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Definition
-Abolished serfdom
-the "revolutionary emperor" in Austria
-a tragic hero whose lofty reforms were undone by the landowning nobility he dared to challenge |
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Term
| Maria Theresa and her reforms |
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Definition
-Joseph II's mother
-a remarkable but old-fashioned absolutist
-was determined to introduce reforms that would make the state stronger and more efficient
-introduced measures aimed at limiting the papacy's political influence in her realm
-introduced a series of administrative reforms that strengthened the central bureaucracy, smoothed out provincial differences, and revamped the tax system
-the government sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population |
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Term
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Definition
-granted religious toleration and civil rights to Protestants and Jews
-abolished serfdom in 1781
-in 1789. decreed that all peasant labor obligations be converted to cash payments |
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Term
| the outcome of Joseph II and Maria Theresa's work? |
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Definition
-the entire Hapburg empire was in turmoil
-Joseph II's brother, Leopold II, was forced to cancel Joseph's redical edicts in order to reestablish order |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| -governed as a regent until 1723 |
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Term
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Definition
| -the duke restored to the high courts of France(the parlements) the ancient right to evaluate royal decrees publicly in writing betore they were registered and given to the force of law |
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Term
| the war of the Austrian Sucession |
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Definition
-in 1748, Louis XV's financial minister decreed a 5% income tax on every individual regardless of social status
-taxation was a privilege of the nobility
-the result was a vigerous protest from many sides, led by Parlement
-the monarchy retreated
-the new tax was dropped and its heacy expenses plunged France into financial crisis |
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Term
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Definition
| -the government caved in and withdrew the wartime taxes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-in 1768, he was appointed chancellor by Louis XV and ordered to crush the judicial opposition
-abollished parlements and exiled verocious members of Parlement in Paris to the provinces
-created a new and docile parlement of royal officials |
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Term
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Definition
| -the using of power to introduce badly needed reforms that had been blocked by a self-serving aristocratic elite |
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Term
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Definition
-deicded to yield in the face of such strong criticism from France's educated elite
-dismissed Maupeou
-repudiated the strong-willed minister's work
-old parlements were reinstated
-started a stalemate |
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Term
| political resergence of the French nobility |
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Definition
-drew crucial support from educated public opinion
-made the liberal crituque of unregulated royal authority its own |
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Term
| the effects of the eastern enlightened respotism |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-like judges/the judiciary
-they are "the law" |
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Term
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Definition
Prussia gained Selisia
-the end of the war of the Austrian Succession |
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