- architecture was primarily functional for utilitarian purposes (protective shelter)

- 

- Ancient Roman engineer

- discovery of fire --> community forming --> language --> architecture

- humans have opposable thumbs, walk upright and look up at sky

Stonehenge. Salisbury, England. 3000-1800 BCE.

- Neolithic open air observatory where astronomical/astrological phenomena could be predicted

- function: help the people recognize and celebrate moments in the celestial calendar (solstices, moonrises, moonsets, etc)

- three phases of construction

- numerology: number of stones add up to astrologically significant numbers 

- mysterious - 60 blue stones transported all the way from Wales, 200+ miles away

- no utilitarian purpose (Laggier) 

- circular form guides viewer's attention upward

- longitudinal form guides viewer's attention in front of them

- bridge between chaotic earth and stability of heavens

Ziggurat of Ur. Ur, Mesopotamia. 2000 BC.

- theme: mountain structures = joining place of the earth and sky, dwelling place of the gods

- sacred, for the moon goddess Nanna

- functioned symbolically as a bridge for the deity's descent into the city and for the ascent of the king/high priests on behalf of the population

- tiered exterior (not smooth like pyramids)

Pyramid Complex of Zoser. Saqqara, Egypt. 2680 BC.

- burial for pharaoh Zoser in 3rd Dynasty of Old Kingdom

- central feature in mortuary courtyard complex

- six mastabas built atop one another like a staircase

- white limestone

- Heb-Sed court: where the Sed festival would take place to commemorate the pharaoh's continual rule (theme of eternity)

Pyramids of Giza. Giza, Egypt. c. 2680-2560 BCE.

- built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure

- end destination for the procession of the Pharaoh's burial from the Nile

Pyramid of Cheops (Pharaoh Khufu). Giza, Egypt. c. 2680-2560 BCE.

- largest and oldest

- top covered with graffiti 

Pyramid of Chefren (Pharaoh Kafre). Giza, Egypt. (c. 2680-2560 BCE)

- middle in size, age, placement

- best preserved

- causeway next to Sphinx (king's head + lion)

- lion = royal symbol, associated with the sun

- mortuary chapel in front of pyramid where high priests would put offerings for the pharaoh 

- mastabas (tombs) in front for Kafre's family

Pyramid of Mykerinos (Pharaoh Menkare). Giza, Egypt. c. 2680-2560 BCE.

- smallest, most recent

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Tomb of Mentuhotep (left). Deir el-Bahri, Egypt. 2050 BCE.

- cut out of living rock (the mountain itself)

- faced the Temple of Amon and the rising sun --> unlike pyramids, more focus on pleasing Amon (new sun god) rather than attention to the sky 

- smaller and to the south of the Tomb of Hatshepsut

Tomb of Queen Hatshepsut. Deir el-Bahri, Egypt. 1503-1482 BCE.

- architect: Senmut

- cut out of living rock (the mountain itself)

- faced the Temple of Amon and the rising sun --> unlike pyramids, more focus on pleasing Amon (new sun god) rather than attention to the sky 

Temple of Amon at Luxor. Luxor, Egypt. 1417-1237 BCE.

- built by Amenhotep III and Ramses II

- dedicated to sun god Amon

- connected to Temple of Amon at Karnak by avenue of sphinxes 

- procession of the Feast of Opet (celebrate marriage between Amon and Mut) would end here

- main parts: 

1) pylon facade: open space, open to public

2) hypostyle court: interior space whose roof rests on pillars/columns 

3) inner sanctuary: priests only allowed, location of cult image

Temple of Amon at Karnak, Egypt. 2000-1235 BCE.

- by architects Ineny and Tuthmosis III

- expanded multiple times

- connected to Temple of Amon at Luxor architecturally and ceremonially through Feast of Opet

- pylon facade: open space, open to public

* Great Hypostyle Hall: interior space whose roof is supported by pillars/columns

- inner sanctuary: priests only, cult image located here

Temple of Hera II. Paestum, Italy. 475-450 BC.

- also known as the Temple of Poseidon or Temple of Apollo

- good example of Doric temple

- entasis gives sense of movement, energy

- two triglyphs right next to each other in corners (unusual)

- bridge between the reality's imperfections and the  ideal perfection

- oriented towards mountain in the distance, reminding Greeks of the Cone of Argos which belonged to Hera

Temple of Hera I. Paestum, Italy. 550 BC.

- sometimes called Basilica

- entasis gives sense of movement, energy

- good example of Doric order

- oriented towards mountain in the distance, reminding Greeks of the Cone of Argos which belonged to Hera

Acropolis. Athens, Greece. 447-406 BC.

• 490 BCE: Athenians send soldiers to Ionia to help Ionians who were colonized by 'barbaric' Persians 

◦ Persians sail to Athens to fight

◦ Battle of Marathon: outnumbered Athenians defeat

the Persians

◦ Acropolis = Temple of Athena, thanking Athena for

their victory 

• nine years later, city states join together to ward off Persians

◦ Persians annihilate Spartans, the city of Athens,

unfinished Acropolis

◦ Athenians strategically temporarily flee to island of

Salamis

‣ Battle of Salamis: outnumbered again,

Athenians defeat Persians

‣ reconstruction of Acropolis to thank Athena

again but kept and integrated the ruins of the first Acropolis

• processional for annual Panathenaic Festival (Athena's birthday)

- procession entered at Propylaea, walked up north flank of Parthenon, and entered Parthenon from east (hieratic direction)

◦ Doric and Ionic styles combined for the first time because of Athenians' feelings of new identities and union after Athenians help Ionians against Persians

- Phidias: overall supervisor

- four parts: Parthenon, Propylaia, Temple of Athena Nike, Erechtheon

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Propylaia (Acropolis). Athens, Greece. 430s BC.

- architect: Mnesikles

- entrance/starting point for Panathenaic Festival

- transition from ordinary world to sacred domain

- relation to landscape: two main pathways after exiting Propylaia face Mt. Lycarettos and Mt Hymettos (main sacred mountain of Greece)

- blue stone from Mt Hymettos put in lower walls --> "purification"

- west/front

- facade: Doric columns have wider space in between them (Ionic)

- walkway: Ionic columns 

- east/back

- central opening is larger, two triglyphs over opening (unusual in Doric)

Temple of Athena Nike (Acropolis). Athens, Greece. 420s BC.

- Athena-Victory

- by the road leading to Propylaea

- architectural rendition of Phidias' statue inside the Parthenon

Erechtheon (Acropolis). Athens, Greece. 421-406 BC.

- site of Poseidon and Athena's contest for who would be the patron god of the city

- main building with two cellas (one for Athena, one for Poseidon), two projecting porches

- caryatid porch (Caryae): columns with explicitly human forms

- historical--represents women from Caryae, traitorous city that helped the Persians 

- must spend all of eternity carrying the weight, looking out at the ruins of the first Acropolis that they were basically responsible for, seeing Athena's ultimate triumph 

The Parthenon. Athens, Greece. 447-432 BC.

- architects: Iktinos, Kallikrates 

- Doric + Ionic

-wider proportions = Ionic

-Doric columns are thinner, taller

- outer Doric frieze decorates entablature 

- inner Ionic frieze depicts Panathenaic Festival

- approached from the west to east (hieratic direction)

- north, south, west sides have scenes that have to do with both the world and the gods

- west side: mythical contest between Poseidon with trident and Athena with olive branch to determine who would be the patron deity of Athens

- east side: only gods depicted

- pediment: birth of Athena from Zeus' head in Olympus

- cosmic importance

- main cella stores Phidias' cult image of Athena Parthenos (Athena of the City) 

- right hand holds a mini version of herself as Athena Nike 

Temple of Apollo Epikourios at Bassae, Greece. 450-425 BCE.

- architect Iktinos

- remote landscape

- longer than usual

- axial: points to Mt. Ithiome 

- interior:

-cella lined with engaged Ionic columns

-lone Corinthian column resembles a tree (one of Apollo's symbols) and replaces cult image of Apollo

-door in the side of the cella wall allowed the view of Mt. Lykaion, associated with Zeus --> maintain the connection between Apollo and Zeus 

Imperial Forums. Rome, Italy. 1st century BCE.

- temple complexes that celebrated each emperor's military victories

- Forum of Caesar by Julius Caesar

- Forum of Augustus

- Forum of Vespasian

- Forum of Trajan

Mausoleum of Augustus. Rome, Italy. 28 CE.

- tomb of Augustus

- outside faced with travertine (a white stone with air pockets), cyprus trees, bronze statue of Augustus at top

- stands in relation to Pantheon

- Egyptian obelisk represents sun god Apollo watching over Augustus

- on Augustus' birthday, shadow of the obelisk points toward Ara Pacis (altar of peace, related to Augustus who brought a period of peace after unrest)

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater). Rome, Italy. 72-80 CE.

- built by Emperor Vespasian

- named after a colossal statue of unpopular emperor Nero

- function: arena for entertainment (mock naval battles, gladiator fights)

- could hold 50,000 people

- located in a valley rather than hill side

- built with stone for the major load bearing uprights and concrete for the vaults

- valarium awning could be extended over seating for sun protection

- includes three orders

-from bottom to top, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Corinthian pilasters

Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. 107-117 CE.

- largest of the Imperial Forums

Trajan's Column. Rome, Italy. 113 CE.

- detailed spiraling relief sculpture depicts one of Trajan's war victories over the Dacians in Romania

• victory brings influx of wealth

- statue of St Peters later put on top in Renaissance Era

Markets of Trajan. Rome, Italy. 107-110 CE.

- multi-leveled, semi-circular shopping center terraced on a hill

- ground level: unconnected spaces/niches

- 2nd level: windows leading to shop spaces (tabernae)

- 3rd level: back wall of shops that open to back street

- Aula Traiana: main groin vaulted hall like a covered street

The Pantheon. Rome, Italy. 117-128 AD.

- built by Emperor Hadrian (after Trajan) but wanted to give credit to Agrippa who built the first Pantheon so kept the Latin inscription

- temple for ALL gods (Pan = "all", theos = "gods")

- well preserved since it was used as a church

1) Porch

- pediment originally had eagle with a wreath (symbol of divinisation) 

- Corinthian columns, some of which were repaired)

- arches on top of columns stabilize and hold up exposed roof

2) Intermediate block

3) Rotunda

- concrete, brick, stone

- steps/rings of dome help force dome's weight into the wall

- honeycomb system of flat arches within the wall redistribute weight to prevent collapsing --> allows the wall to be thicker in some areas and thinner in others

- floor: made of marbles from all over Roman Empire --> THEME: showing power over geopolitical territory 

- three visible levels, both inside and outside

• bottom: aedicules (small shrines) with rounded and pointed pediments, round and square niches with two columns in front

• top: coffers, oculus that lets sun (Apollo) in 

- ray of light moves around during the day; animates the building 

- cosmological: spherical dome, oculus

- numerological: 7 niches --> 7 known planets at the time, 28 rows of coffers --> 28 days for moon to orbit earth

Ashokan Pillars, Northern India. 272-231 BCE.

- aka Pillars of Law

- Mauryan king Ashoka spread Buddha's message through edicts etched on these pillars in vernacular so they could be understood by ordinary people

- axial: pillar represented axis of the world

- ornate capitals with lions

- THEME: using monuments to spread ideas

Sanchi Complex. Sanchi Town, Madhya Pradesh, India. 100 CE.

- founded by Ashoka

- composed of 3 stupas on a hill ("stupa" = piled up)

- symbolizes body of the Buddha, enlightenment

- original stupas housed the relics of Buddha's bodily remains

- plastered and painted

- decorated with flowers and offerings during festivals

Stupa II. Sanchi, India. 100 CE.

- vedika: stone balustrade that imitates wood

- medhi: circular terrace above and around base

- mandala in the shape of svastika: cosmological space-time diagram

- parikrama: practice of circumambulation (counter clockwise walking around base that brings bodily harmony with the cosmic order)

- cardinality: openings in the vedika at North, South, East, West points

Stupa I/Great Stupa/Mahastupa. Sanchi, India. 250-25 BCE.

- largest at Sanchi

- begun by Ashoka and later enlarged

- Ashokan pillar at south entrance

- vedika: stone balustrade that imitates wood and shows scenes of Buddhist significance

- medhi: shallow berm above vedika

- harmika: inaccessible, symbolic vedika at the top

- chattris: finial with three stone disks atop the harmika

- vertical axis that points to cosmos

- torana: monumental stone gateway

Caitya. Bhaja, India. 100-70 BCE.

- caitya: apsidal prayer hall 

- caves cut out of living rock to imitate wood = permanence

- parikrama performed around mini replica stupa at the end of prayer hall

- Hinayana Buddhism: mendicant, nomadic, no possessions

Caitya. Karla, India. 50-70 CE.

- caitya: Buddhist prayer hall

- caves cut out of living rock to imitate wood = permanence

- under Satavahana Dynasty in Southern India

- more complex pillars than Caitya at Bhaja; capitals with couples riding animals

- parikrama circumambulation

Buddha Statues. Bamiyan, Afghanistan. 6th Century CE.

- two gigantic Buddha statues carved out of living rock cliff face = permanence

- details made by molding mud and straw

- originally painted in gold and bright colors

- along trade routes

- under Kushan Dynasty in Northern India

- March 2001: destroyed by Taliban who regarded them as offensive idols

Mogao Caves. China. 6th century and after.

• inhabited by monks

• main buddha sculpture in center

• stucco and clay/straw walls

• paintings of the Buddha's life and manifestations of Buddhist doctrines

Yungang Caves. China. 5th-6th centuries.

• built near a city in Northern China

• urban population of the city would come here to worship

• large seated Buddhas

• interior: carved walls as a relief, then painted

Zhaoshou Bridge. China. 595-605.

- engineer Li Chun

- central arch made of thin limestone slabs connected with iron dovetails/staples

- two side arches on both sides lighten the weight-bearing load, and in case of a flood, makes the bridge less likely to be destroyed

- under Tang Dynasty, which made heavy investments in canal and road building

Ise Jingu (Ise Shrine). Ise, Japan.

- in a forest in southern Honshu

- unification of Shino with emperor's spirit

- houses a sacred necklace of magatama, symbol of succession from the Sun Goddess

- composed of Outer Shrine (Geku), Inner Shrine (Naiku), 100+ lesser sanctuaries 

Inner Shrine (aka Naiku). Ise, Japan.

- dedicated to the heaven-illuminating Great Kami

- path to Naiku:

-cross Uji bridge over Isuzu River

-path lined with torii

-stone basin of water for purification

-enter forest

- entering Naiku:

- torii

- curtain separates ordinary and royal people/priests

- Shoden: innermost shrine reserved only for the emperor; built without nails

- shikinen sengu: rebuilding process; renewal shows reverence to the kami by revitalizing its earthly residence 

- materials/wood are impermanent, but the kami/spirit is eternal

Horyu-ji Monastery. Ikaruga, Japan. 7th-8th centuries.

- right: tall pagoda 

• stores relics

• symbolizes the presence of a Buddhist sanctuary

• stories get smaller as you go up

- left: kondo image hall

• stores sacred statues 

- two gate entrances

• columns of Main Gate have entasis

- enclosed corridor wraps around pagoda and kondo 

• roof support system with cloud-pattern brackets and bearing blocks

• curved "rainbow beams"

Old Saint Peter's. Rome, Italy. 4th century.

- circular structure on the side was built on St. Peter's burial site

- entrance courtyard, porch, nave with columns and aisles, transept, apse

- spolia = Christianity's victory over death, sin, Paganism

• Composite columns surround apse, emphasizing the sacredness

• Corinthian along nave

Arch of Constantine. Rome, Italy. 315 CE.

- triumphal arch celebrating the military victory that allowed him to become Emperor

- used engaged Corinthian columns instead of Composite to make it clear that Composite had been "given" to Christ

Church of the Acheiropoietos. Salonica, Greece. 450-70.

- how early Christian churches evolved into Byzantine church forms that were broader and shorter

- Composite columns on ground level, Ionic on second level

- green (nave) and yellow (choir) areas for clergy

- orange (aisles and galleries on three sides) for congregation

- nave for preaching, singing (where Word of God is revealed)

- centripetal plan focused on the nave

- baptized people on ground floor take communion

- unbaptized people in upstairs galleries

Hagia Sophia. Constantinope (Istanbul), Turkey. 532-7.

- architects: Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos under Emperor Justinian

- replaced earlier Hagia Sophia that was burned down in 532 Nika Riots

- church converted to a mosque (hence the four minarets) then museum

- dedicated to be an earthly home of God, a vision of heaven

- "Hagia Sophia" = Divine Wisdom

• seen through its immense scale and artisanal skill

• light streaming in = presence of God

• is a microcosm of the universe, Christ's own body

- centrally planned and axial: timeless divine wisdom from circularity and personalized wisdom with longitudinal element 

- spolia of marble = symbol of nature/landscape and extended politico-religious power for Justinian's Empire

- giant dome on predentives

- unbaptized on upper galleries

- Byzantine Composite columns closer to main central space

Great Mosque. Damascus, Syria. 709-15.

- Roman Temple of Jupiter converted to Christian church then mosque with three minarets

- spolia: columns  

- quibla wall: direction of prayer towards Mecca

- sahn: courtyard

• mosaics of paradise

• ablutions fountain for purification

- mihrab: decorative panel marking the quibla wall

- prayer hall in gray

Kaaba. Mecca, Saudi Arabia. 

- center of Sacred Mosque (Masjid al-Haram)

- holiest place in Islam

- hajj pilgrimage and circumambulation

- granite

- axial: corners align with compass points

Dome of the Rock. Jerusalem, Israel. 687-691.

- under Umayyad Dynasty

- oldest Islamic building to remain intact in original form

- sacred site for Christianity, Islam, Judaism

• where Mohammad ascended to heaven in his Isra (Night Journey), Abraham bound Isaac, events of Jesus' life

- encloses the exposed Foundation Stone of the highest point of Mt. Moriah

- wooden dome with inscription that affirms Jesus as a prophet but denies his divinity and encourages Christians to convert to Islam

- geometrical plan - octagonal, circles, squares

- circumambulation practiced 

Great Mosque. Kairouan, Tunesia, Africa. 820-36.

- under Abbasid Dynasty

- stepped minaret in courtyard

- courtyard paved in marble

- arcades carried on columns with horseshoe arches

- colored columns in prayer hall make reference to the plan of the Dome of the Rock

Great Mosque. Cordoba, Spain. 784-6.

- built by Caliph Abd al-Rahman I under Umayyad Kingdom in Spain

- built in four phases

- red and white stone arches in prayer hall make reference to Roman aqueducts 

- mihrab dome: ribs connect diagonally and create a nest-like frame 

Shiva Temple. Elephanta Island. 6th century.

- built by Hindu monks as a retreat on island

- cut from steep living rock

- cruciform plan with square hall

- three entrances

- two main axes: east-west running the long way aligned with the garbh-griha, north-south running the short way

- garbh-griha: square chamber with entrances on each side

- three giant sculptures of Shiva

Rathas of Mamallapuram. India. 590-730.

- ratha: temple carved out of one large boulder

- monolithic sculptures of real buildings

- built under Raja Simha 

- exteriors carved top-down 

- first left: Durga ratha in form of square hut

- first right: two story Arjuna ratha 

- second: Bhima ratha

- third: tallest Dharmaraja ratha

- fourth: apsidal Nakula-Sahadeva ratha

Shore Temple. Mamallapuram, India. 700-728.

- built by Raja Simha

- made of three shrines

1) main shrine with vimana tower to Shiva facing east

2) smaller shrine with vimana tower to Shiva facing west

3) in between the two, shrine withOUT tower to Vishnu

- erosion caused by water diversion for Vishnu shrine

Kailasnath. Ellora, India.

- commisioned by Krishna I

- rock cut representation of cosmic Shiva's Kailash mountain

- freestanding building surrounded by the mountain that it was hewn from

- two victory towers provide vertical axis

- garbh-griha is traditional windowless square chamber with Shiva sculptures

- ring of five shrines open onto the passage surrounding the garbh-griha