Term
| Cells control their chemical environment using |
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Definition
– Energy
– Enzymes
– The plasma membrane |
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Definition
| the capacity to perform work |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| created or destroyed (conservation of energy) |
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Term
| energy conversion releases |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
– Type of kinetic energy
– Product of all energy conversions |
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Definition
as a measure of disorder, or
randomness. |
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Term
| All energy conversions increase the |
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Definition
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Term
| Organic compounds are relatively rich in |
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Definition
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Term
| Cellular respiration is the |
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Definition
energy-releasing chemical breakdown
of fuel molecules that provides energy for cells to do work. |
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Term
| A calorie is the amount of energy that |
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Definition
raises the temperature of
one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. |
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Definition
– Released by the breakdown of organic molecules during cellular
respiration
– Used to generate molecules of ATP |
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Definition
– Acts like an energy shuttle
– Stores energy obtained from food
– Releases it later as needed |
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Definition
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Definition
ADP and a phosphate group through
cellular respiration. |
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Definition
| the total of all chemical reactions in an organism |
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Definition
| proteins that speed up chemical reactions |
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Definition
– Activates the reactants
– Triggers a chemical reaction |
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Definition
a specific reactant
molecule. |
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Term
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Definition
active site fits to the substrate, and the enzyme changes shape
slightly. |
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Term
| Enzyme inhibitors can prevent |
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Definition
metabolic reactions by binding to
the active site |
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Term
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Definition
– Are located in membranes
– Regulate the passage of materials into and out of the cell |
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Term
| Diffusion is the tendency for |
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Definition
molecules of any substance to
spread out into the available space |
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Term
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Definition
diffusion of a substance across a
membrane without the input of energy |
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Term
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Definition
a region
in which the substance’s density changes. |
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Term
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
is |
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Definition
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Definition
| has a higher concentration of solute. |
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Definition
| has a lower concentration of solute |
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Definition
| an equal concentration of solute. |
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Term
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Definition
the control of water balance within a cell or
organism. |
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Term
| Its plasma membrane may pull away from the cell wall |
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Definition
in the process of
plasmolysis, which usually kills the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
requires energy to move molecules across a
membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
| secretion of large molecules within vesicles |
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Term
| Endocytosis takes material into |
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Definition
a cell within vesicles that bud
inward from the plasma membrane. |
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Term
| Phagocytosis (“cellular eating”); |
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Definition
a cell engulfs a particle and packages it
within a food vacuole |
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Term
| Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”) |
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Definition
a cell “gulps” droplets of fluid by
forming tiny vesicles |
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Term
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
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Definition
| a cell takes in very specific molecules |
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Term
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Definition
– Are key ingredients of membranes
– Were probably among the first organic compounds that formed before life
emerged
– Self-assemble into simple membranes |
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Term
The muscles that move our legs contain two main types of muscle
fibers: |
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Definition
– Slow twitch
– Fast twitch |
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Term
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Definition
– Generate less power
– Last longer
– Generate ATP using oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
– Generate more power
– Fatigue much more quickly
– Can generate ATP without using oxygen |
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Term
| Animals depend on plants to convert solar energy to: |
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Definition
– Chemical energy of sugars
– Other molecules we consume as food |
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Term
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Definition
Uses light energy from the sun to power a chemical process that makes
organic molecules. |
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Term
| Plants and other autotrophs (self-feeders |
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Definition
| – Make their own organic matter from inorganic nutrients |
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Term
| Heterotrophs (other-feeders): |
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Definition
Include humans and other animals that cannot make organic molecules
from inorganic ones. |
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Term
| The ingredients for photosynthesis are |
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Definition
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Term
| Chloroplasts in the cells of leaves |
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Definition
Use light energy to rearrange the atoms of CO2 and H2O, which produces
– Sugars (such as glucose)
– Other organic molecules
– Oxygen |
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Term
| Plant and animal cells perform cellular respiration |
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Definition
Primarily occurs in mitochondria
– Harvests energy stored in organic molecules
– Uses oxygen
– Generates ATP |
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Term
| The waste products of cellular respiration are |
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Definition
CO2 and H2O
– Used in photosynthesis |
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Term
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Definition
The main way that chemical energy is harvested from food and converted
to ATP
– An aerobic process—it requires oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
oxygen gas.
– Cells release waste carbon dioxide gas. |
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Term
| A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is |
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Definition
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Term
| the calvin cycle makes direct use of |
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Definition
| co2, atp, and NADPH to make sugar |
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Term
| • Cellular respiration can produce up to |
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Definition
38 ATP molecules for each
glucose molecule consumed. |
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Term
During cellular respiration, hydrogen and its bonding electrons
change partners |
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Definition
Hydrogen and its electrons go from sugar to oxygen, forming water.
– This hydrogen transfer is why oxygen is so vital to cellular respiration. |
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Term
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons from one substance to
another are called: |
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Definition
Oxidation-reduction reactions or
– Redox reactions for short |
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Term
| The loss of electrons during a redox reaction is called |
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Definition
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Term
| The acceptance of electrons during a redox reaction is called |
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Definition
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Term
| During cellular respiration glucose is |
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Definition
oxidized while oxygen is
reduced. |
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Term
| Why does electron transfer to oxygen release energy |
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Definition
When electrons move from glucose to oxygen, it is as though the
electrons were falling.
– This “fall” of electrons releases energy during cellular respiration. |
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Term
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Definition
– A controlled fall of electrons
– A stepwise cascade much like going down a staircase |
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Term
| The first step is an electron acceptor called NAD+. |
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Definition
| – The transfer of electrons from organic fuel to NAD+ reduces it to NADH |
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Term
The rest of the path consists of an electron transport chain,
which |
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Definition
Involves a series of redox reactions
– Ultimately leads to the production of large amounts of ATP |
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Term
All of the reactions involved in cellular respiration can be
grouped into three main stages |
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Definition
Glycolysis
– The citric acid cycle
– Electron transport |
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Term
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Definition
• A six-carbon glucose molecule is split in half to form two
molecules of pyruvic acid.
• These two molecules then donate high energy electrons to NAD+,
forming NADH. |
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Term
| Thus, glycolysis produces |
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Definition
a net of two molecules of ATP per
glucose molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| completes the breakdown of sugar. |
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Term
| In the citric acid cycle, pyruvic acid from glycolysis |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
– Extracts the energy of sugar by breaking the acetic acid molecules all the
way down to CO2
– Uses some of this energy to make ATP
– Forms NADH and FADH2 |
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Term
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Definition
Transfer of energy into
coenzymes NAD+ and FAD
Substrate level
phosphorylation |
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Term
| What comes out of the crebs cycle? |
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Definition
Two molecules of CO2 from
each Acetyl co-A molecule
(4 from each glucose)
Three molecules of NADH
from each Acetyl co-A molecule
(6 from each glucose)
Two molecule of FADH2
from each Acetyl co-A molecule (4 from each glucose) |
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Term
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Definition
releases the energy your cells need to make the
most of their ATP. |
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Term
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Definition
– The chain functions as a chemical machine that uses energy released by
the “fall” of electrons to pump hydrogen ions across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
– These ions store potential energy |
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Term
When the hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane, they
release energy. |
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Definition
– The hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase.
– ATP synthase:
– Takes the energy from this flow
– Synthesizes ATP |
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Term
| Cyanide is a deadly poison that |
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Definition
– Binds to one of the protein complexes in the electron transport chain
– Prevents the passage of electrons to oxygen
– Stops the production of ATP |
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Term
| • In addition to glucose, cellular respiration can “burn”: |
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Definition
– Diverse types of carbohydrates
– Fats
– Proteins |
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Term
| Cellular respiration can generate up to 38 molecules of |
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Definition
ATP per
molecule of glucose. |
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Term
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Definition
anaerobic (without oxygen) harvest of food
energy. |
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Term
| After functioning anaerobically for about 15 seconds: |
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Definition
| Muscle cells will begin to generate ATP by the process of fermentation |
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Term
| Pyruvic acid, produced by glycolysis, is |
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Definition
| Reduced by NADH, producing NAD+, which keeps glycolysis going. |
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Term
The lactic acid produced by microbes using fermentation is used
to produce: |
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Definition
– Cheese, sour cream, and yogurt dairy products
– Soy sauce, pickles, olives
– Sausage meat products |
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Term
| Yeast are a type of microscopic fungus that: |
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Definition
– Use a different type of fermentation
– Produce CO2 and ethyl alcohol instead of lactic acid |
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Term
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Definition
Is used by plants, some protists, and some bacteria
– Transforms light energy into chemical energy
– Uses carbon dioxide and water as starting materials |
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Term
| The chemical energy produced via photosynthesis is stored in the |
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Definition
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Term
| Organisms that use photosynthesis are: |
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Definition
– Photosynthetic autotrophs
– The producers for most ecosystems |
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Term
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Definition
– The site of photosynthesis
– Found mostly in the interior cells of leaves |
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Term
| Inside chloroplasts are membranous sacs called thylakoids |
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Definition
| which are suspended in a thick fluid, called stroma |
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Term
| Thylakoids are concentrated in stacks called |
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Definition
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Term
| The green color of chloroplasts is from |
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Definition
chlorophyll, a lightabsorbing
pigment. |
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Term
| Stomata are tiny pores in leaves where |
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Definition
carbon dioxide enters and
oxygen exits. |
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Term
| In the overall equation for photosynthesis, notice that |
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Definition
– The reactants of photosynthesis are the waste products of cellular
respiration. |
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Term
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Definition
– Electrons are boosted “uphill” and added to carbon dioxide
– Sugar is produced |
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Term
| • During photosynthesis, water is split into: |
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Definition
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Term
| Hydrogen is transferred along with electrons |
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Definition
and added to carbon
dioxide to produce sugar |
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Term
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Definition
| stomata into the atmosphere |
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Term
| • Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: |
|
Definition
– The light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy
– The Calvin cycle uses the products of the light reactions to make sugar
from carbon dioxide |
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Term
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Definition
– Are chemical factories powered by the sun
– Convert solar energy into chemical energy |
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Term
| Sunlight is a type of energy called radiation |
|
Definition
or electromagnetic
energy. |
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Term
| The full range of radiation is called the |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
– Absorbs mostly blue-violet and red light
– Participates directly in the light reactions |
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Term
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Definition
Absorbs mostly blue and orange light
– Participates indirectly in the light reactions |
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Term
|
Definition
– Absorb mainly blue-green light
– Participate indirectly in the light reactions
– Absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that might damage
chlorophyll |
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Term
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Definition
| discrete packets of energy |
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Term
| Chlorophyll molecules absorb photons. |
|
Definition
Electrons in the pigment gain energy.
– As the electrons fall back to their ground state, energy is released as heat
or light. |
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Term
| • A photosystem is a group of |
|
Definition
chlorophyll and other molecules that
function as a light-gathering antenna. |
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Term
| Two types of photosystems cooperate in the light reactions |
|
Definition
– The water-splitting photosystem
– The NADPH-producing photosystem |
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Term
| The light reactions are located in the |
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Definition
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Term
| An electron transport chain |
|
Definition
– Connects the two photosystems
– Releases energy that the chloroplast uses to make ATP |
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Term
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Definition
Functions like a sugar factory within the stroma of a chloroplast
– Regenerates the starting material with each turn |
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Term
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Definition
Use CO2 directly from the air
– Are very common and widely distributed |
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Term
|
Definition
Close their stomata to save water during hot and dry weather
– Can still carry out photosynthesis |
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Term
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Definition
– Are adapted to very dry climates
– Open their stomata only at night to conserve water |
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