1.Organization - atoms→ molecules→ cells→ tissues→ organs→ organ system→ organism

2. Keeps an internal environment (homeostasis)

3. Takes in energy 

4. Responds to stimuli

5. Reproduction

6. Adaptaition

7. Growth

All organisms have "evolved."

Organisms that do not adapt will become extinct, one that adapt are extant (living).

MRSA - Meth Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus -more than 19000 deaths in US since 2005

Resistance to methicillin, a second generation drug, after 1st generation penicillin

Principle #2 of Biology

(Cell Theory)

Life is cellular - Robert Hooke - 1650's - saw that cork was made of dead cells

Leeuwenhoek - 1600's - saw bacterial protists in pond water

NOT CELLS - no cell membrane or cell wall.

- They reproduce; DNA is surrounded by proteins

- Can evolve - why we need flu shot ever year

- Exception to the cell theory!

Causes Mad Cow Disease, or BSE - Bovine Spongitoiem Encephalopathy (brain disease)

Rogue proteins - diff molecular configuration, changes good proteins into unhealthy ones.

Coccus - round (stapholococcus, streptococcus)

Spirillum - spirals (syphillis)

Bacillus - rods (tuburculosis)

Puts variability in populations so no one virus will wipe everyone out. 

Those with better traits will survive and adapt!

Prokaryotes: Cell membrane, genetic material, no nuclear envelope.

Bacteria: 10% are pathogenic, 90% are beneficial (decomposers)

Cyanobacteria/Cyanophytes - animals or plants?

Eukaryotes: have nuclear membranes

(See notes)

NONE are autotrophic - they are enzymatic decomposers

Mushrooms - feed underground using the roots.

Top of mushroom is reproductive, releases spores.

(See notes for more on Fungi)

Autotrophic - release oxygen via photosynthesis

Majority of oxygen comes from sea - phytoplankton and zooplankton

Non-vascular, don't have vessels

ex: moss, liverworts - simple, don't like sunlight, autotrophic

Big because they are vascular.

Ex: Trees, bushes

Both vascular tissues

Xylem - brings water up from the roots

Phloem - transports organic nutrients from the roots

Explanation with the last assumptions is often the right one!

*Watson and Crick's journal on DNA was only 600 words!*

Lose their leaves every fall

Ex: Elm tree, oak trees

Keep leaves year-round

Ex: Pinecones, evergreens, etc.

Multicellular heterotrophs

(see notes)

1. Notochord

2. Pharyngeal Gill Slits

3. Muscular post-anal tail

4. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord

Early skeletal support rod - Mesoderm derivative

As humans, lost it at birth and got a vertebrae

Ingest nutrients and release waste through gills

Eventually becomes:

1. Mandibular Arch (Jaws)

2. Anvil, Hammer, Stirrup (Middle earbones)

3. Thyroid glands

4. Hyoid bone (tongue)

5. Thymus

6. Eustation Tube - stabilizes air pressure on each side of eardrum

Derived from the ectoderm

Hollow tube outside notochord, made up of nerves.

Becomes the Central Nervous System and brain

*Anencephaly - Born without a brain

From the phylum cordata, has the 4 features but no developed vertebrae

Ex: Urochordata, Cephalocordata

The development of an organism develops from the more general to the most specific one at a time (sequentially)

Ex: Legs are formed before toes

"Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny"

You yourself are restating the characteristics of your phylum/group

Dioecious: When an organism has two seperate genders

Dimorphic: The two seperate genders are discernible

*Not all dioecious organisms are dimorphic*

Production of gametes for sexual reproduction

2 Kinds: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

Meiosis I: Human Cell (1 cell with 46 chromosomes)

Interphase ( 1 cell with 92 chromosomes)

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase (2 cells with 46 chromosomes each)

Meiosis II: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase (4 cells with 23 chromosomes each)

An egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm.

In humans, a "wall" forms after initial fertilization that prevents other sperm from penetrating.

Division of cytoplasm

Unequal in oogenesis, meiosis forms 3 polar bodies and 1 viable egg to enhance reproduction and create a "supercell" with a better chance of surviving.

Few eggs are produced, internal development.

Ensures embryo's survival.

Morula

Blastula

Implantation

Gastrula

Neurula

In Mammals!

Contains an Inner Cell Mass (eventual fetus) and a trophoblast (eventual placenta)

Invagination - the blastocyst begins to hollow out via invagination.

Always opposite the point of sperm penetration

Outer cell layer

1. Skin - epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium)

2. Nails

3. Sebacious (oil) glands

4. Pseudoriferous (sweat) glands

5. Ceruminous (wax) glands

6. Mammary glands (boobs)

7. Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord)

1.Notochord - eventually replaced by skeleton (206 bones)

2.Dermis -2nd layer of skin, dense, irregular, has lots of fibers and connective tissues

3. Hypodermis - Tissue, nerve endings, adipose (fat)

4. Muscles - skeletal, cardiac, smooth/visceral

Inner cell layer

1. Digestive tract (Archenteron - primitive gut)

2. Stomach, small and large intestine, liver, rectum, anus, gallbladder, pancreas

3. Oral Cavity

4. Pharynx, esophagus

5. Most of respiratory system

Chordomesodermal mantle releases inductors/evocators that induces a mitotic change in the dorsal (rear) ectoderm

Ectoderm forms a thickened neural plate which will eventually close up into a neural tube around the notochord.

*Anterior before Posterior* 

Proteins that are involved in the cells sticking together

 - Causes delamination in blastula stage

"Mouth First"

- The blastopore that forms during the gastrula stage will become the mouth, other end will become anus.

- Spiral Cleavage: cells cleave on an axis - not symmetrical

- Coelum (body cavity) forms by schizocoelous (splitting) mesoderm

- If you excise a blastomere, it will terminate

"Mouth Second"

Blastospore becomes the anus first, other end becomes the mouth.

- Radial cleavage: cells cleave symmetrically

- Coelum forms by enterocoelous (outpocketing) mesoderm

- If you excise a blastomere, it will form 2 normal larvae

*Phylum Cordata and Echinodermata are Deuterostomes*

In a Dish

Ex: IVF - Egg is fertilized outside the uterus in a dish