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| Steps in Scientific Method |
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Definition
1. Observation
2. Propose hypothesis
3. Experiment
4. Reject/Retain Hypothesis
5. Develop Theory |
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| Juding the rightness or wrongness of an act by characteristics of the act itself-apart from its consequences |
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| Juding the rightness and wrongness of an act based on its consequences ('always act so as to maximize the amount of good in the universe') |
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| Allele combinations in an individual that causes particular traits or disorders |
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| The expression of a gene (physical appearance) |
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| Two identical alleles of a gene |
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| Two different alleles of a gene |
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| Allele that is not expressed in the presence of the dominant allele |
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| Allele that expresses itself when present in just one copy |
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| Inheritance of traits is controlled by hereditary factors |
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| Variant forms of the same gene |
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| Contain two complete sets of genetic information (chromosomes exist as homologous pairs) |
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| Contain one complete set of genetic information (gametes) |
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| Chromosomes with the same gene sequence |
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XX=females
XY=males
23rd pair on the karyotype |
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| Traits passed on from the X or Y chromosome (male or female) |
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| The exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes |
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| Genes carried on the same pair of chromosomes (at close loci) tend to be inherited together to the next generation |
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Double Helix
Deoxyribose Sugar
Phosphate Group
Nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G) |
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| Double helix unwinds and the two strands separate from each other; new strands are synthesized one nucleotide at a time on the parental strand (old strand serves as a template for the new one) |
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| Information is changed into amino acids |
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| Begins when an enzyme called RNA polymerase combines with a short sequence of DNA marking the beginning of the gene |
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| Substitution of one nucleotide for another--can result in the addition of a wrong amino acid in the protein structure |
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| Base insertion or deletion; if not in multiples of three |
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| Polymerase Chain Reaction Technique |
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Definition
| A technique in which cycles of denaturation, annealing with primer, and extension with DNA polymerase are used to amplify the number of copies of a target DNA sequence million fold. |
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| A small amount of fluid is withdrawn from the amniotic sac. Fluid is analyzed for the presence of absence of certain enzymes; fluid also contains fetal cells that can be grown in the laboratory and analyzed for certain defects |
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Biopsy of the placenta
Can be preformed earlier than amniocentesis, however it has a greater risk |
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| Carries messages from DNA for protein synthesis |
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| associates with proteins to form ribosomes |
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| Carries a specific amino acid molecule for protein synthesis |
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| Function is protein synthesis |
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| Each cuts DNA at a specific nucleotide sequence, forming restriction fragments |
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| Short circular DNA pieces that are nonchromosomal used to separate from the bacteria chromosome |
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| Host; can transfer the gene into the desired human cells |
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| Restriction-fragment length polymorphisms |
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| DNA fingerprinting; non-coding sequences that vary in individuals |
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| DNA fragments are separated according to size and charge |
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| The process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common, due to differential reproduction of genotypes |
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| Success, or lack of success, at attracting and reproducing with a mate |
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| Any feature that enables a species to survive in circumstances in which it could not survive as well without the adaptation |
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| One species of organisms deceptively resembles another species |
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| Shared similarities are evidence that organisms share a common ancestry (forelimbs of mammals) |
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| Structures that do not have a common origin but have the same function (bat wings are not homologous to insect wings but homologous to human arms, whale flippers...) |
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| Structures that have lost their functions in the course of evolution (tend to diminish in size and/or become another structure/function) |
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| The remains of past life forms |
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| A group of organisms within a specific area that are able to reproduce with each other and produce a viable and fertile offspring |
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| The split of one species into two |
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| Two organisms are better off when interacting with one another |
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| Lack a well defined nucleus and lack most organelles; contain a single circular chromosome |
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| DNA (with proteins) enclosed in a double membrane called the nuclear envelope; contain complex organelles and a cytoskeleton |
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| Larger prokaryotic cells incapable of performing certain energy-producing chemical reactions engulfed smaller prokaryotic cells able to carry out these reactions (ex: mitochondria and chloroplasts) |
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| The product of when an egg and sperm unite and share DNA information |
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| The flow of cytoplasm determins the direction of movement |
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| Evolved as an adaptation that came along with forward movement |
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| The process of change in allele frequencies that occurs entirely from chance (small groups of individuals are reproductively separated from a larger population) |
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| A small number of individuals become founders of a large population |
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| May have caused excess food (when avaliable) to be converted to body fat during famine |
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| Heterozygous individuals have maximum fitness while homozygous genotypes suffer from some selective disadvantages or reduction in fitness |
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| Any act that increases another individual's fitness but lowers or endangers one's own fitness |
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| Chemicals used for communication |
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| Male and female games are identical |
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| Large nonmotile egg and small motile sperm |
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| 1 male mates with 1 female |
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| 1 male mates with many females |
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| 1 female mates with many males |
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| Both sexes mate with multiple partners |
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| Population tends to increase geometrically if its growth is unchecked |
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| r= birth rate - death rate + (immigration - emigration) |
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| # of deaths / people in the population |
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| The maximum population size that can persist in a given enviroment |
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| Stable carrying capacity, low to moderate population growth rate, sexual reproduction, large body size, fewer offspring production at a given time, high parental investment |
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| Population fluctuates greatly over time, high population growth rate, sexual or asexual reproduction, small body size, high reproductive rate, little or no parental investment |
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| Produce testosterone, APH (anti-paramesonephic horomone, which causes degeneration of mullerian ducts) and sperm |
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| Produces estrogen (the female horomone), eggs (oocytes), and progesterone |
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| Sperm maturation (storage) occurs here |
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| Sperm travels through this to the urethra |
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| The release of a mature egg from the ovary |
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| Produces progesterone which maintains the lining of the uterus for the implantation of an embryo should the egg be fertilized. If low levels of progesterone are present, lining of uterus breaks down (miscarriage) |
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| The egg completes its second meiotic division and haploid chromosomes join with the haploid chromosomes from the sperm |
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| Female hormone that maintains the lining of the uterus |
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| Starches and sugars; can be mono, di, or poly -saccharides. Fiber! |
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| Organic compounds that do not dissolve in water: fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids |
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| High animal source; fatty acids have single bonds (usually solid at room temperature) |
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| High plant source; have double as well as single bonds in their fatty acid chain causing the molecule to bend (usually liquid at room temperature) |
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| Made of amino acids and are required for tissue growth and repair, connective tissue, enzymes (speed up chemical reactions), and antibodies (immune system) |
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| Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions |
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| An increase in this reduces the incidence of several cancers. Soluble reduces the level of serum cholesterol and the risk of heart disease and stroke as they prevent reabsorption of bile from the intestine |
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| Antioxidants (bind to free radicals to prevent cell harm and decrease risk of developing cancers) |
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| Required for calcium absorption |
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| Required for the clotting of blood |
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| inhibits oxidation (can neutralize the damaging effects of free radicals) |
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| Have an unequal distribution of electrons and thus have a slight charge |
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| Have equal distribution of charge |
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| a group of similar cells that perform a common function |
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| Cell Cycle: growth and protein synthesis |
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| Cell Cycle: DNA synthesis and replication of DNA takes place |
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| Cell Cycle: Cell prepares to divide (protein synthesis and growth) |
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| Cell cycle: cell remains active but does not divide |
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| Provides an anchor for a gene; important in the process of transcription |
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| In stem cells: new telomeres are produced as old ones are lost |
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| Cell division at the wrong place at the wrong time |
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| Are in an undifferentiated state, able to differentiate into more committed cell types, able to renew themselves by cell division. Can be derived from embryonic cells or from adult tissue (bone marrow) |
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| Used for treating illness, injury or disability (clone organs) |
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| Is a form of asexual reproduction in which females produce eggs that develop without fertilization (cloning in nature) |
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| Nucleus from a somatic cell is put into the egg cell (whose own nucleus is removed) |
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| remain localized in one area |
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| invade or spread to other tissues/areas/organs |
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| Spread of cancer cells to new locations |
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| Cancer that arises in epithelial tissues |
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| cancer that arises in connective tissues |
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| Cancer of white blood cells |
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| Starts as skin cancer then spreads to all other parts of the body due to a faulty DNA repair mechanism |
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| Due to mutation in tumor suppressor gene |
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| Genes that inhibit cell division |
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| Spread of cancer cells to new locations |
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Increasing age
Viruses
Physical and Chemical Carcinogens
Tumor initiators and Tumor Promoters
Dietary Factors
Salty and pickled foods
Alcohol |
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| Engulf and kill microoganisms (neutrophils) |
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| Engulf and dispose dead cells and debris |
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White blood cells
B=produces antibodies (proteins that fight infection)
T=kill infected cells through release of chemicals |
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| Keep immune system active |
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| are disorders in which the body's immune system reacts against itself and produces antibodies to attack its own healthy cells and tissues |
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| The immune system's inappropriate response to a foreign substance |
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| Symphathetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| Activates what is often termed the "fight or flight" response |
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| Parasympathetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| inhibits or opposes the physiological effects of sympathetic nervous system as in tending to stimulate digestive secretions, slow the heart, constrict the pupils, and dilate blood vessels |
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| The absence of one or more of the normal functions of the immune system (inherited or enviromental) |
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| HIV targets this--immune system helpers |
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