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| how many kilometers is in meters |
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| meter to centimeters (cm) |
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| meter to millimeters (mm) |
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| a measuring device used for measuring objects with round surfaces (sphered and cylinders) |
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| surface area to volume ratio |
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| a measurement of the amount of matter in an object. mass and weight are not the same thing! |
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| depends upon two aspects; wavelength of light used and a value called the numerical aperture |
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| different structures may be stained different colors |
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| other dyes are nonspecific and stain all structures of the cell |
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| vital stain used in topic 2 |
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| 1. observe; 2. hypothesis; 3. experiment; 4. results; 5. conclusion; 6. hypothesis is rejected if the data does not support it; 7. theory |
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| suggested explanation that accounts for those observations |
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| a widely accepted and well-supported hypothesis |
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| what species did we use in topic 3? |
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| Saccharomyces Cerevesiae (yeast cell) |
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| what did we use to count the cells? |
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| hemacytometer counting chamber |
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| arithmetic mean (average) |
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| S^2= sigma(measured value for each sample - X)^2/N-1 |
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| S= the square root of S^2 |
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| SE= standard deviation/ the sq root of N |
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| a statement that the two populations are the same (null means no difference) |
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| if null hypothesis is rejected then this states that there is a difference in the two means. treatment had an effect |
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Topic 4 - Chemistry
pH can be measured by various methods |
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pH indicator papers and pH meters
-litmus paper
-pH paper |
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maintains a relatively constant pH in a solution
ex: NaHCO3 |
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| carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids |
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*sugars - mono-disaccharides and polymers of sugars - polysaccharides
*polysaccharides= (Structural)cellulose, chitin, (Storage) starch and glycogen |
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include fats, phospholipids, and steroids
*have in common=all hydrophobic
*fats= long term energy storage in animals
*phospholipids= major components of cellular membrane
*steroids= function as hormones and other are cellular membrane components |
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-polymeric molecules made of amino acid monomers.
-workhorses of the cell
-can be enzymes, antibodies, hormones, transport proteins, contractile proteins, structural proteins, etc |
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-polymeric molecules
-RNA and DNA
-made up of nucleotide monomers
-responsible for passing genetic information from one generation to the next (DNA)_involves protein synthesis(RNA) |
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| what test did we use for reducing sugar (mono and disaccharides)? |
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Benedict's test
solutions used contain- copper sulfate and sodium carbonate |
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| what test did we use for polysaccharides? |
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Iodine Test
solution used-IKI
color dark blue or brown |
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| presence of lipids in a liquid form will be tested by using a dye called Sudan IV |
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| what test did we use for proteins? |
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Biuret Test
color-blue to purple color
NaOH was used in this section |
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| what kind of molecule is Albumin? |
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topic 5 - enzymes
what is an enzyme? |
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| chemical reaction are highly controlled by biological catalysts called enzymes |
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| enzymes lower activation energy |
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| enzymes are proteins with one or more locations |
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| substance acted upon by the enzyme, attaches to the active site |
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| substrate is chemically modified and converted into one or more products |
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| necessary in the activation of certain enzymes |
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| factors that tend to decrease or inhibit the rate of an enzymatic reaction |
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| they affect enzymes in general; typically act through altering the shape of the protein |
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| what are the key environmental factors that modify protein structures thus influence enzyme activity? |
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| how does temperature affect enzyme action? |
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as temperature is inc. or dec, the kinetic energy of the molecules is consequently inc. or dec
affects the structure of an enzyme therefore its function |
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| how does pH affect enzyme action? |
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| affects the activity of the enzyme by altering the enzyme structure |
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| interacts with the enzyme in a way that does not directly involve the active site of the enzyme |
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| directly involved in the active site of the enzyme |
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| the enzyme that we studied in topic 5 that has to do with guaiacol |
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a phenolic compound, which upon oxidation will become brown
*know the formula |
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instrument designed to detect the amount of light absorbed by the molecules in a solution
*know absorbance |
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the concentration of solute molecules is directly proportional to the absorbance
equation- A=Ecl |
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| the maintenance of a dynamically constant environment in a cell or organism |
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| unraveling of the protein |
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blocks the iron atom at the active site of peroxidase. can be used to test the effects of the inhibiting enzyme activity
*has to do with the effects of inhibitors on peroxidase activity* |
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| the iron atom at the active site of peroxidase is called |
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a mosaic of lipids and proteins.
sugars and amino acids must enter the cell, while waste products must leave the cell and be diluted in or excreted into the environment. Common interface for this process is the plasma membrane |
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molecules in gaseous phase have greater kinetic energy than molecules of the same substance in a liquid or solid phase
-has to do with normal environmental temperature that increases the speed of movement, collision of molecules if temperature is raised |
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| the movement of molecules in solution |
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the gradual difference in concentration over the distance between high and low regions
-the steeper the concentration gradient, the more rapid the diffusion
-larger molecules move more slowly than small molecules at the same temperature |
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some substances can not diffuse through the membrane while others can, so biological membranes are...
*Dialysis tubing |
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| selective permeability accounts for the phenomenon of osmosis |
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Transport Mechanisms-
facilitated diffusion |
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| occurs when such a protein simply serves as a binding and entry port for the substance (protein helping) |
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| occurs when proteins in the plasma membrane bind with the substrate and with a source of energy to drive the pumping of the substrate into or out of the cell |
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used for diffusion experiment
-medium used to find the different rates of diffusion in salt anions |
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| diffusion of a gas through a membrane |
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| membrane to be used here is dialysis tubing. made of thin porous material that is selectively permeable |
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water
-a solution in which water is the solvent is called an aqueous solution |
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solid portion such as salt
-know what tool is kork bar |
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| fewer number of solute molecules |
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| greater number of solute molecules |
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| equal number of solute molecules; no osmosis takes place |
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plant leaf used for the osmosis in plant cells
-slide 1=isotonic
slide 2=hypertonic
slide 3=hypotonic |
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topic 7- cellular respiration
ATP |
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the form of energy used for most cellular processes
-animals, conversion of energy in food to ATP occurs in digestion and cellular respiration |
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| equation of cellular respiration |
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| C6H12C6 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O |
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| three stages of cellular respiration |
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| glycolysis, kreb's cycle, electron transport chain |
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2 ATP and 2 NADH is produces
1 glucose-ten reactions into 2 pyruvate
occurs in the cell cytosol; pyruvate the enters the mitochondria |
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CO2, NADH, and acetyl-CoA are produced
pyruvate-1 complex reaction then acetyl-CoA |
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| catalyzes the 9th reaction of glycolysis. requires magnesium ions as cofactors. if magnesium is not available for the enolase enzyme , the enzyme will not function |
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one of the protein members of the electron transport chain. the chemical called azide reacts with cytochrome a3 and prevents passage of electrons
-used NaF and azide solution |
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| used a fermentation tube for the respiration experiment |
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