• Enzyme produced in the stomach
• breaks down protein
• maximum activity at pH 2.0

• Chemical produced by liver
• Stored in gall bladder
• breaks down fat

• Multi-functional
• Rich in bicarbonate (neutralize acids)
• contains various enzymes for digesting carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids

• Finger-like projections in the inner lining of intestines
• Increase surface area
• Maximizing nutrient absorption

Animal's Diet must supply:

(3 things)

1. Chemical Fuel for cellular respiration
2. Organic building blocks
3. Essential nutrients

all cells need fuel

example: glucose

carbon-based macromolecules necessary for development and maintenance

example: carbohydrates, fat, protein, and nucleic acid

• Amino acids (Animals need 20. only 10 can be synthesized in diet)
• Fatty acids (only 2 known for humans)
• Vitamins (Organic molecules. 13 essential)
• Minerals (calcium, potassium, etc)

Only one opening in digestive system

mouth=anus

two openings in digestive system

mouth & anus

Food goes in

Contribute to digestion

(3)

liver

gall-bladder

pancreas

Cells --> Tissue --> Organ --> Organ System

(neuron)     (bone)      (lung)   (respiratory system)

• Covers outside of body
• lines the organs & cavities
• barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss

• holds tissue & organs together
• built on liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
• example: bone, blood, and tissue

• reponsible for body movement
• filaments containing actin & mysosin
• Example: skeletal/smooth/cardiac muscle

• Receive, process, & transmit info
• contains neurons
• concentration can form a brain
• examples: glial cells, neurons

• Transmits hormones to receptive cells via blood
• affects one or more regions of the body
• relatively slow acting, but long-lasting effects

• Transmits nerve impulse between specific locations
• received by neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells
• very fast

• Steady-state physiological condition of the body
• maintained by negative feedback, which helps to return a temperature to either a normal range or a set point

• Generates heat by metabolism
• birds and mammals
• active at greater range of external heat
• energetically expense

• Gain heat from external source
• most invertebrates, amphibians, & non-avian reptiles
• tolerate greater variation in internal temperature
• energetically inexpensive

Transduce stimulus energy & transmits signals to

Central Nervous System

1. Sensory Repection
2. Transduction
3. Transmission
4. Perception

Amplication

&

Sensory Adaptation

Decrease in responsiveness upon continued stimulation

Example: have shirt on. feel it at first but after awhile you forget its there.

1. Mechanoreceptors
2. Electromagnetic receptors
3. Thermoreceptors
4. Chemoreceptors
5. Nociceptors

Pain

* the only one that doesn't have sensory adaptation

Human skin has:

(which sensory receptors)

Mechanoreceptors

Thermoreceptors

Nociceptors

1. outer ear
2. middle ear
3. inner ear

• in the cochlea
• relies on hair cells & basilar membrane

balance

&

equilibrium

• 3 spatial planes
• detect angular movement

Tastants

(What are they?

& name them)

• Specific receptors 

1. Sweet
2. Sour
3. Salty
4. Bitter
5. Umami (what makes things savory)

• A transparent disk of protein
• Focusing is achieved by the shape. Controlled by ciliary muscles

• a clear watery substance 
• delivers vital nutrients to the eyes
• maintaining correct pressure balance in the eye chamber

• jellylike
• helps to maintain the shape of the posterior chamber of the eyeball

• converts light rays into electric signals which are sent to the brain
• The brain then translate it to an image

The thicker the lense, the more ___ lights is bent

1. Rods
2. Cones

• Sensitive to light
• Doesn't distinguish color

• Color vision (red, blue, green)
• Contributes little to night vision

• muscle fiber
• myofibril
• thin filament (actin)
• thick filament (myosin)

bones

striated

cellular respiration

cells need fuel.

Animals engage in constant __ with environment

(respiration)

True or False:

Gas Exchange takes place across dry respiratory surfaces by diffusion

False.

*Moist

Mammals have lungs

Insects have tracheal system

Fish have gills

Goes up when inhaling

Goes down when exhaling

1. Circulatory fluid (blood)
2. Interconnecting tubes (blood vessels)
3. mascular pump (heart)

cells suspended in plasma

1. Plasma
2. White Blood Cells
3. Red Blood Cells
4. Platelets

Water

 ions

plasma protein

substances transported by blood (nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases, hormones)

White Blood Cells

AKA?

• Leucocytes

Defense & Immunity

Red Blood Cells

AKA?

• Erythrocytes

Transport of 02 (via hemoglobin)

• carry blood away from heart to organs
• powered by heart
• thicker smooth muscles
• has no valves

• Carries blood from organs to heart
• powered by muscle
• thinner smooth muscle
• has valves

• muscular pump powering blood circulation
• mostly cardiac muscle
• 4-chambered (right/left atria & ventricle)
• Contract & Relax in rhythmic cycle

one complete sequence of pumping & filling

about 0.8 seconds

relay point

affected by nerves, body temp, & exercise

• Fastest in arteries
• Medium in veins
• Slowest in capillaries

• Fastest in arteries
• Medium in capillaries
• Slowest in veins

• Arthropods & most molluscs
• Hemolymph bathes body cells

• Annelids, cephalopods, & all vertebrates
• Blood is confined to vessel
• Heart pumps blood

• Fishes
• Blood passes through 2 capillary beds before returnign to heart

• Amphibians, reptiles, & mammals
• 2 separate circuits (pulmonary & systemic)

Pathogens

(bacteria, virus, fungus, nematodes, etc)

• found in all plants/animals

1. Barrier Defense
2. Internal Defense

• The first line of defense against pathogens
• Exoskeleton, skin, mucous membrane, secretion (lysozome; in saliva, mucus, tears)

• Once a pathogen breaches barrier defenses, it faces the second line of defenses

Animals recognize non-self (broad range of pathogens) using a small set of conserved receptors

* part of internal defenses

Ingestion & digestion of foreign invaders

*part of internal defenses

attack microbes or impede their reproduction

*part of internal defenses

recognize & eliminate diseased cells

*part of internal defenses

changes brought about by signaling cells released upon injury or infection

*part of internal defenses

• produces a vast arsenal of pathogen-specific receptors to recognize and response to pathogen attacks with tremendous specificity

1. Thymus
2. Spleen
3. Lymph nodes
4. Bone marrow

*these organs & lymph vessels are known as the lymphatic system

• removes old RBC
• stores RBC
• synthesizes antibodies
• produces RBC & immune cells

lyphocytes

B cells & T cells

Humoral Immune response involves __ cells in the ___

• found in almost all cells
• recognized by cytotoxic T cells

• Found in antigen-presented cells (dendritic cells, macrophages, B Cells)
• recognized by both cytotoxic T cells & Helper T cells

Lungs: 90%

Skin: 80%

Blood: 82%

Brain: 70%

Muscle: 75%

Bones: 22%

Ammonia

* very toxic

1. Ammonia
2. urea
3. uric acid

highly toxic, highly soluble

easily lost by diffusion

found in aquatic animals

very low toxicity

conversion from ammonia costs energy

found in humans, mammals, sharks

non-toxic, doesn't dissolve in water

energetically very expensive

found in reptiles (incl. birds), insects

Filtration --> Reabsorption --> Secretion --> Excretion

• Descending limb
• ascending limb

reabsorption of water

reabsorption of salt, water, bicarbonate

secretion of K+ and H+

inhibits ADH (antidiuretic hormone) secretion

* important for osmo regulation

inhibit absorption of Na+, increase glomerular filtration rate

*filter out more blood

a secreted protein that binds to antigens and can deactivate antigens

in humoral immune response only

a multi-functional defensive weapon that can deactivate pathogens by processes such as viral neutralization, opsonization, and activation of complement system and pore formation

Allergies are hypersensitive responses to certain antigens called allergens.

the antibody (IgE) attaches to the mast cell, releasing HISTAMINES, causing allergic reactions