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| a conceptual framework useful for understanding a body of evidence, once in place difficult to be overturned |
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| 1925- TN teacher, Scopes, teaches evolution and is sued for this; TN has placed a ban on teaching evolutionism. Scope loses his job |
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| aristotle's "Great chain of being", static hierarchical scale of nature |
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| Plato-Each species has an essence or important aspect that is abstract but unique to that species, any variation within the species is unimportant |
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| literal interpretation of Bible, only idea that believes the Earth is not ancient |
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| 1473-1543, astronomer, heliocentric model of the universe |
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| 1564-1692 astronomer, emphasis on observation |
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| 1642-1727 physics, mechanistic laws of nature=earth not static or at center of creation --> dynamic planet |
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| 1638-86, geologist, stratigraphy and the principle of stratigraphic superposition (layers of rock/Grand Canyon) |
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| 1726-97, 1797-1875- geologists, concept of uniformitarianism-> rocks contain a dynamic history of life on earth, successive species, deep time |
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| 129-200 AD, biologist, wrote first anatomy book |
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| (1452-1519 + 1514-64), study the human body by dissecting cadavers instead of reading Galen |
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| 1744-1829, inheritance of acquired characteristics, *relationships between organisms and environment can lead to change over time. Modern thought: incorrect theory |
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(1809-82 & 1823-1913), came up w/ evolution independently, collaborated.
1858- introduced evolution w/ "On the Origin of Species"
-Finally gave a "how" to the idea/question of evolution and inheritance |
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| Evolution by Natural Selection Argument |
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Definition
Observation 1) All species have tremendous reproductive potential (exponential growth/superfecundity)
Observation 2) But species/ populations tend to remain relatively stable because of limited resources/ disease (except for humans/species in new environments)
Deduction 1) Therefore there's a struggle for existence- not all offspring survive to reproduce
Observation 3) All organisms vary and some of this variation is hereditary (heritable traits v. acquired characteristics)
-This variation is real& important (contrary to essentialist/typological theory)
Deduction 2) Some individuals have heritable traits that enhance their probability of survival&reproduction in certain environments-& on avg these traits will be passed on to the next generation in greater proportion than other forms of the trait
-Evolutionarily, heritable variation can be:
advantageous, deleterious, neutral
Depending on context/environment |
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| Continuous v. discontinuous variation |
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Continuous-no strict categories(height), bell shaped graphs
Discontinuous(discrete)- specific categories(blood types) |
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Lamarck-giraffe stretches neck so much it grows and this is passed down and lengthened
Darwin- giraffes all born w/dif neck lengths and those w/ longest survive and produces offspring w/ other longnecks |
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| DNA synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus->mRNA moves to cytoplasm->synthesize protein by ribosome, brings in amino acids and makes proteins |
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Exons- expressed in proteins
Introns- not expressed |
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First draft completed in 2000
only ~21,000 protein coding genes (surprisingly small #)
-discovered the critical role of non-coding DNA |
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| stretch of DNA containing instructions to make a protein, fundamental unit of hereditary, some can make more than 1 protein (alternate splicing) |
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How factors of the environment, acquired characteristics can influence genes:
Exons can be combined in different ways,
Methyl groups attached to DNA can be passed on to new generations,
Histones can silence some DNA |
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| simple idea of what happens in cell--> too simple |
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production of new cells within an organism.
Each chromosome copies itself-->attached copies line up-->original and copy separate as cell divides-->daughter cells are copies of parent cells |
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Production of sex cells/gametes:
chromosomes copy themselves and line up as in mitosis, creates 2 cells identical to the first, but then the pairs segregate and separate, so 4 new sex cells are created each w/ 1/2 the number of normal(46) chromosomes (so 23 chromosomes) |
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Polygenic trait- many genes contribute to 1 single effect (Tay Sachs)
Pleiotropy-1 gene has multiple effects (Down Syndrome)
-some things are both polygenic and pleiotropic |
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| changes in allele/gene frequencies in a population over time (sickle cell anemia in tropical populations) |
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| Evolution v Natural Selection |
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evolution takes place in a population
natural selection and mutations occur in individuals |
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Point mutations
Duplications, deletions, inversions, insertions
Aneuploidy- ex. Turner Syndrome
-Trisomy 21(3 chromosome 21s, XYY)- Down Syndrome |
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changes in allele frequencies of (usually small) populations that are random from reproduction/interbreeding, not from natural selection.
Powerful in small pops, not in large |
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| Drastic reduction in size of population through a random extraction, leaves a subset of pop. w/ a smaller amount of diverse alleles, who then reproduce a new population w/ a genetic drift |
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small group from populationw/ certain alleles moves to a new area and reproduces, offspring have more of these certain alleles.
This new smaller pop. differs by parent pop. by chance
-Rare alleles may show up in later generations through inbreeding (dwarfism in Amish) |
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Descent w/ modification:
common ancestry (continuities)
diversification (discontinuities) |
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| Species: Biological concept |
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| a group of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other organisms |
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| Species: Ecological concept |
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| natural selection creates and maintains species boundaries , reproductive isolation is not essential |
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Allopatric-most common, barrier causes different species to form
Parapatric- gradient/gradual change forms new species
Sympatric- most rare, gradual checkerboard theory
Rapid speciation- leads to several closely related species
Adaptive radiation- rapid diversification of species from a common ancestor to fill many ecological roles |
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| theoretical study of classification, including its basis, principles, procedures and rules. subjects of classification are organisms and the subjects of taxonomy are classifications |
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scientific study of the kinds of diversity of organisms and of relationships among them.
systematics=taxonomy+evolutionary interrelationships |
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evolutionary tree
"tree thinking"-trees communicate evolutionary relationships, lines of descent |
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| Gradualism v. punctuated equilibrium |
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Gradualism- anagensis, gradual transformation, "smoother" tree
Punctuated equilibrium- rapid changes, cladogenesis, has specific branching events |
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| skin color based on UV exposure, lactase persistence spread throughout northern europe where pastorialism common |
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-Mutations increase variability
-Genetic drift increase variability
-Gene flow- decrease variability
-Selection may increase/decrease |
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| all events in nature are due to natural causes |
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| uniformity in space and time |
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| all events in nature occur the same way, wherever and whenever they happen |
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| all humans perceive events through their sense in the same way |
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| primitive/symplesiomorphic features |
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features shared by a group of species by virtue of being present in a remote common ancestor.
ie-Apes and humans have an orbital ring, but it is not unique to apes and humans- all primates have this |
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| Derived/Synapomorphic features |
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| features share uniquely between two or more descendant species. ex: apes have large brains, not all other primates do |
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group of related animals.
Cladistics is a way scientists determine the most likely relationships between clades |
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| similarities not due to common ancestry. arise from parallel or convergent evolution |
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| unique feature in a species- found in only 1 species |
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| information/genes inherited from each parent remains segregated in offspring (they don't mix together to form something, you carry 2 separate genes) |
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| law of independent assortment |
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| genes on any one chromosome are passed on independently from genes on all other chromosomes |
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| Genotype, Phenotype, Allele |
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Genotype-individual's genetic makeup
Phenotype- physical appearance of trait
Allele-variation of gene |
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(# of people with trait)/(total # of people in group/population)
To find probability an individual has both/more traits- multiply the frequencies together. |
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| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium |
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1)No genetic drift- the population is infinitely large
2)No mutation- no new alleles are introduced
3)No migration- no new alleles are introduced
4)No selection all genes are equally "fit" and all individuals possessing them are equally likely to reproduce
5)Mating is random with respect to genotype
=No evolution has occurred |
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Allele frequency= (p+q)= 1 Where p is frequency of allele B and q of allele b
Genotype frequency=p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Where p^2= frequency of genotype BB
2pq= that of genotype Bb
q^2= that of genotype bb
These numbers are the expected frequencies. When the expected meet the observed/actual, HWEquilibrium has been met. |
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poly- ancient belief that people are derived from multiple creations
mono- from a single creation |
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| naming system for organisms with a genus and species label |
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| theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by great natural disasters such as noah's flood |
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| Soviet-era research that tried to apply Lamarckian thinking to agricultural production |
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| creationist school of thought that proposes that natural selection cannot account for the diversity and complexity of form and function seen in nature |
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pro-single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, in which the genetic material is not separated from the rest of the cell by a nucleus
eu- cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus |
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| Nucleotide and base pairs |
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nucleotide-molecular building block of DNA and RNA, consists of phosphate, sugar and base
base- variable component of nucleotides that form DNA and RNA, in DNA- AGTC (AT pairs, CG pairs), in RNA U replaces T |
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diploid- in somatic cell, 46 chromosomes
haploid- gamete, 23 chromosomes |
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| failure of chromosomes (chromatids) to separate properly during cell division. when it occurs during meiosis it may lead to the formation of gametes with a different number of chromosomes |
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| structural v regulatory genes |
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structural- contain info to make a protein
regulatory- guide expression of structural genes, without coding for a protein themselves |
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| blending v particulate inheritance |
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blending- discredited 19th century idea that genetic factors from the parents blended when passed to offspring
particulate- based on the transmission of alleles/genes according to Mendelian principles |
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| qualitative v quantitative variation |
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qualitative- phenotypic variation that can be characterized as belonging to discrete, observable categories
quantitative- phenotypic variation that is characterized by the distribution of continuous variation (expressed using a numerical value) within a population (like a bell curve) |
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| Autosomal Recessive Disorders |
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| caused by recessive alleles- Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell, tay-sachs, PKU |
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| Autosomal Dominant Disorders |
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| caused by a dominant allele-Huntington's, Myotonic dystrophy, Achondroplasia, Neurofibromatosis type 1 |
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| disorders linked to the X chromosome- Fragile X syndrome, Hemophilia, Red-Green color blindness, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome |
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| directional v stabilizing selection |
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directional- natural selection drives evolutionary change by selecting greater/lesser frequency of a trait in a population
stabilizing-selection maintains certain phenotype by selecting against any deviations |
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| adaptationism and reductionism |
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adaptatationism- all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to form optimal enhancing reproductive success
reductionism- organism is the sum of many evolved parts, best understood through adaptationist approach |
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| starting assumption for a scientific inquiry that the research/experiment results are random. the hypothesis must challenge this initial assumption, prove that there is a reason behind the results |
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group- discredited by Darwinist theory, that animals act towards the good of their social group/species
kin- Hamilton's theory that animals behave preferentially towards their genetic kin |
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| local interbreeding population, defined in terms of genetic composition (like allele frequencies) |
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| group of local populations that share part of a geographic range of a species, can be differentiated from other subspecies based on 1-more phenotypic traits. |
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| species that consist of a number of separate breeding populations, each varying in some genetic trait |
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| view that the environment has great influence to directly shape the anatomy of individual organisms |
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| how anthropology began, the measurement of different aspects of the body, such as stature, skull size, skin color |
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| the distribution of a trait or allele across geographical space |
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| Polymorphism, Balanced Polymorphism, and Frequency-dependent Balanced Polymorphism |
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Polymorphic- 2-more distinct phenotypes (at genetic/anatomical levels) that exist in a population
Balanced polymorphism- stable polymorphism in a pop. in which natural selection prevents any pf the alternate phenotypes (or underlying alleles) from becoming fixed or lost
Frequency-Dependent Balanced Polymorphism- balanced polymorphism that's maintained because of 1-more of the alternate phenotypes has a selective advantage over other phenotypes when present in the pop. below a certain frequency |
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| combinations of alleles (or at the sequence level, mutations) that are found together in an individual |
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| Adaptability v. Acclimatization |
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adaptability- ability of an individual to make positive anatomical/physiological changes after short/long term exposure to stressful environmental conditions
Acclimatization- short term changes in physiology that occur in an individual in response to changes in environmental conditions |
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| Bergmann's Rule and Allen's Rule |
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Bergmann- body size is larger in colder climates to conserve body temp
Allen- in warmer climates, limbs of a body are longer relative to body size to dissipate body heat |
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