Term
| What is the law of specific nerve energies in modern terms? |
|
Definition
| activity by a particular nerve always conveys the same kind of information to the brain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Transmit rod info to Ganglion neurons, which sends info to brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| modulate activity of cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inhibits bipolar cells, detect borders around objects. differences in shades of color (lateral inhibition) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-find in peripheral
-low light conditions, poor detail
-120 million in retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in fovea (center portion of retina)
-detect color
-best under bright light, fine detail
-respond to particular colors
-6 million |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Rod and cone receptors
Horizontal cells
Bipolar cells
Amacrine cells
Ganglion cells
LIGHT RAYS ^ |
|
|
Term
| Foveal vs peripheral vision |
|
Definition
FOVEA: speciailized for acute, detailed vision
----better acuity (sensitivity to detail)
PERIPHERAL VISION: more and more receptors converge onto bipolar and ganglion cells. brain cannot tell exact location or shape of light source
---better sensitivity to dim light |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people could match any color by mixing appropriate amounts of just three wavelengths |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| we perceive color in terms of opposites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cortex compares info from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color of an area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
reduction of activity in one neuron by activity in neighboring neurons
function: heighten contrasts |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of ganglion neurons that ascend to the brain? |
|
Definition
Parvocellular neurons: small cell bodies and small receptive fields, mostly in or near fovea
Magnocellular neurons: larger cell bodies and receptive fields, distributed evenly in retina
koniocellular neurons: small cell bodies, occur throughout retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small cell bodies and small receptive fields, mostly in or near fovea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| larger cell bodies and receptive fields, distributed evenly in retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small cell bodies, occur throughout retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| periodic compressions of air, water, or other media |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Number of compressions per second of a sound wave |
|
|
Term
| What is the perception of amplitude or frequency called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-alters reflections of sound waves to locate source of a sound
-fleshy part of outer ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eardrum, vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves that strike it |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 bones that are connected to the Tympanic membrane called? |
|
Definition
1. Hammer
2. Anvil
3. Stirrup |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-membrane of outer ear, adjacent to stirrup
vibrations are transmitted here from tympanic membrane |
|
|
Term
| What is the cochlea and what is it filled with? |
|
Definition
-snail shaped structure in inner ear
-filled with 3 fluid-filled tunnels: scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani |
|
|
Term
| What are auditory receptors in cochlea called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-low frequencies
-basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency
-rate of action potentials = frequency of sound
-up to 100 Hz |
|
|
Term
| What are auditory receptors in cochlea called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -high frequency -basilar membrane--each area along membrane is tuned to a specific frequency, like a piano -4000 Hz to 20,000 Hz -stimulate hair cells farther down cochlea -> increase frequency of sound |
|
|
Term
| What is the cochlea and what is it filled with? |
|
Definition
-snail shaped structure in inner ear
-filled with 3 fluid-filled tunnels: scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani |
|
|
Term
| What are auditory receptors in cochlea called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-normal pitch (like human speech)
-4000 Hz
-action potential does not match each frequency, so another action potential needs to "fill" what frequencies it missed |
|
|
Term
| In what lobe is the primary auditory cortex located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Through which colliculus does auditory information travel on the way to the auditory cortex? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where does auditory information travel? |
|
Definition
| cochlea -> medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus -> auditory cortex |
|
|
Term
| 3 methods used to localize sounds |
|
Definition
-intensity: sound becomes louder for one ear
-time of arrival: what ear is it reached first?
-phase difference between the ears - if turn head away from the source, it is phased out |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-middle ear not transmitting sound properly
-little bones not working |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-inner ear
-neurons not communicating sound; cochlea damage, hair cells, nerves, etc
-german measles, aspirin, loud noises |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ringing in ears
like phantom limb for hearing |
|
|
Term
| What are the mechanical senses? |
|
Definition
-respond to pressure, bending, or other distortions of a receptor
-pain, touch, etc |
|
|
Term
| 3 different types of cells that are used for shape analysis |
|
Definition
Simple cells – Primary visual cortex. have receptive fields with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones. More light in excitatory = more cell responds. Responds to a stimulus in only one location.
Complex cells: In areas V1 and V2. Responsive to moving objects in same orientation. Larger receptive field
Hypercomplex cells: has an inhibitory zone where response is weakened |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Primary visual cortex. have receptive fields with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones. More light in excitatory = more cell responds. Responds to a stimulus in only one location. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In areas V1 and V2. Responsive to moving objects in same orientation. Larger receptive field |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| has an inhibitory zone where response is weakened |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
movement of head (balance)
-has semicircular canals that are lined with hair cells to depict movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of skin connected to a particular spinal nerve |
|
|
Term
| Why is pain information carried relatively slowly? |
|
Definition
| -axons are unmyelinated, so slower |
|
|
Term
| Different pain levels - axons |
|
Definition
Thicker and faster: convey sharp pain
Thinner axons: convey dull pain |
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitters are releases in the spinal cord in response to mild or strong pain? |
|
Definition
mild: glutamate
strong: substance p |
|
|
Term
| where is the detection of pain processed? |
|
Definition
somatosensory cortex
cortex of contralateral hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| where is the response to pain processed? |
|
Definition
Somatosensory cortex
emotional response in prefrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| how are endorphins and opiates similar? |
|
Definition
opiates made outside of body, endorphins made inside
block pain by inhibiting ascending pain afferent in medulla
block release of substance p |
|
|
Term
| where are the chemical receptors for pain located? |
|
Definition
| spinal chord and periaqueductal grey area of midbrain, medulla |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if disturb signal for pain and flood pathway with other sensations, then decrease pain experience, because only so much touch info can reach brain at a time. |
|
|
Term
| what are placebos effective for? |
|
Definition
-emotion
-decrease response in cingulate cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-suggest that the drug will increase pain
-worsen pain by increasing anxiety |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-neurological disorder
-widespread musculoskeletal pain
-possible predisposition: psychological issues, trauma, viruses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
each receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli, has a direct line to brain
and meaning depends on which neurons are active |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli |
|
|
Term
| in short, all or nearly all perceptions depend on... |
|
Definition
| the pattern across an array of axons |
|
|
Term
| What is the insula known as? |
|
Definition
-Primary taste cortex -A bad taste will be processed in this region and may result in facial response that we call disgust.
-sweet, sour, salty, bitter glutamate |
|
|
Term
| Where is the olfactory bulb located relative to the nasal passage? |
|
Definition
-above it
receptors in olfactory epithelium (top of nasal cavity)
-receptors replaced every 38 days |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-means "time-giver" in german
-light is the dominant zeitgeber for land animals
-effects sleep schedule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleepy during day, sleeplessness at night |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
taken in evening: not effective
taken in day: effective, b/c natural levels of meltatonin not very night |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -pineal gland, increases sleepiness 2-3 hours before bedtime, decreases 2-3 before waking up |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| with the first stage being less sleepy and the fourth stage being a deep sleep. After the fourth stage, REM (rapid eye movement) sleep occurs, during which dreams often occur. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-pontomesencephalon: neurons relrease acetylcholine + glutamate in basal forebrain, hypothalamus, and thalamus
(excitatory effects)
-hypothalamus: neurons release HISTAMINE (excitatory), and OREXIN (stimulate acetylcholine neurons) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Basal Forebrain: neurons release acetylcholine in thalamus + cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Basal forebrain: neurons also release GABA in cortex
ADENOSINE: inhibits basal forebrain acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| causes: diet, poor sleeping conditions, stress, neurological problems, lactose intolerance |
|
|
Term
Superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
-what happens if damaged? |
|
Definition
-causes pineal gland to release melatonin
-above optic chiasm, part of hypothalamus
-controls circadium rhythms for sleep + body temp
-if damaged: bodys rhythms less consistent and no longer synchronized to environment |
|
|
Term
| What does the reticular formation do regarding cortical arousal? |
|
Definition
| increases cortical arousal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
part of reticular formation
-maintains arousal during wakefulness and increases alertness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-located in pons
-releases norepinephrine in cortex, strengthens memories |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excitatory, reduce drowsiness |
|
|
Term
| What impact does acetylcholine and GABA, when released from neurons in the basal forebrain, have on alertness? |
|
Definition
acetylcholine: excitatory, increase arousal, make more awake
GABA: inhbits synaptic activity; induces sleep |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inhibits basal forebrain acetylcholine
as adenosine decreases, acetylcholine increases
makes more drowsy
-caffeine blocks adenosine receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
frequent periods of sleep during day
-gradual/sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day
-cataplexy: muscle weakness
-sleep paralysis
-hallucinations |
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitter may mediate the neuropathology of narcolepsy? |
|
Definition
| people with narcolepsy lack cells that produce Orexin in hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| How do the sleep aids Ambien, Lunesta, and Rozerem act in the brain to promote sleep? |
|
Definition
Ambien + Lunesta: facilitate activation of GABA
Rozerem: acts on melatonin receptors - agonist |
|
|
Term
| What are night terrors and at what age do they generally occur? During what sleep stage do nights terrors typically occur? |
|
Definition
-occur more common in children
experiences of high anxiety during sleep, causing person to wake in terror
occur during NREM sleep |
|
|
Term
What areas of the hypothalamus monitors and regulates body temperature?
What are the two ways in which this area monitors body temperature? |
|
Definition
-preoptic area (POA)
-Anterior thalamus
----POA/AH have receptors that respond to temperautre: shiver or sweat |
|
|
Term
| By what mechanism does infection initiate fever? |
|
Definition
| white blood cells (leukocytes) release CYTOKINES, which stimulate the vagus nerve ---> signals hypothalamus to initiate fever |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-water moves from low to high concentration of salt
-receptors around 3rd ventricle (leaky) --> responsive to high salt levels
ADH released from pituitary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-loss of body fluid (blood, water, sweat, diarrhea, etc)
Increase in Angiotensin II: released from blood, reaches III ventricle + activates neurons in hypothalamus + releases angiotensin II as a neurotransmitter in hypothalamus -> increase thirst |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enables kidneys to reabsorb water from urine |
|
|
Term
| make sense of the interactions between glucose, insulin and glucagon |
|
Definition
liver maintains glucose by converting stored nutrients
glucose regulates: insulin and glucagons
-INSULIN: enables glucose to enter cells if...
used as fuel, stored as fat, or stored as glycogen
GLUCAGONS: stimlate liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose |
|
|
Term
| What symptoms occur as a result of damage to the lateral hypothalamus? What are the stages of recovery for a damaged lateral hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
-damage results in APHAGIA (not eating enough) and ADIPSIA (not drinking enough)
Stage 1: Aphagia and Adipsia
Stage 2: Anorexia. drink sweet water
Stage 3: Adipsia. refuse plain water still, eating
Stage 4: near-recovery |
|
|
Term
| What happens if damage selectively occurs to the ventromedial hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
overeating (HYPER-PHAGIA)
more meals |
|
|
Term
| How do steroid hormones exert their effects? |
|
Definition
| generated from cholestrol: estrogen (estradiol, progesterone) + androgens (testerone) |
|
|
Term
| Where is the sexually dimorphic nucleus and what is the relative size between males and females? |
|
Definition
-located in anterior hypothalamus
-2-3 times larger in males, due to release of testosterone |
|
|
Term
| Compare the dependence upon hormone for sexual activity in rodents, cats, dogs, non-human primates and humans |
|
Definition
rats: no sexual activity
dog/cat: reduced sexual activity
nonhuman primates: semi-reduced
humans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enhances Nitric Oxide levels in bloodstream to increase blood flow |
|
|
Term
| What are two functions or roles that oxytocin has? |
|
Definition
-stimulates contractions, maternal behaviors
-arousal
-decreases anxiety after orgasm
-facilitates formation of bonds |
|
|
Term
| What may happen if testosterone levels are too low in males or too high in females? |
|
Definition
-low testosterone in males: develop female physical appearance
-high testosterone in females: masculine appearance |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between gender and sex? |
|
Definition
gender: how you identify yourself
sex: genetics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-in anterior hypothalamus
-larger in heterosexual males |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
smaller in homosexual men
-testosterone depletion produces similar effects in male rats (smaller SCN), advances towards male rats |
|
|
