• used for small volume transfers
• less than 1 mL. (First stop/Second stop)

• designed for a single volume which is indicated near the top 

• graduated, but stop at base line before narrows
• measure up to a certain number then up one more and get rid of excess

• graduated, but the appropriate amount is drawn up
• 10-100 mL

• used for filling pipettes
• green is 10 mL
• blue is 1 mL

• increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed or changed during the process
• do this by lowering activation energy between reactants and products

• energy it takes to make a reaction occur
• catalyst lower this

• are organic catalysts
• they are highly specific
• most are proteins and have complex 3D shapes

• the complex 3D shapes of enzymes
• decides how the enzyme functions

• the substrates bind to the active site and changes the conformation of the enzyme
• then the product changes the shape and returns to the original conformation

• where the substrates bind on the enzyme and the reaction takes place

• created by the conformation of the enzyme
• decides what it can bind to

• suffix usually given to enzymes
• usually named for reaction they catalyze

• the enzyme oxidase 
• the substrate catechol
• the exact name because its being oxidized

spectrophotometer

• used to detect the amount of radiant energy absorbed by the molecules

• as concentration increases (^), the amount of light absorbed increases (^)

1. transmittance
2. absorbance

• modes on spectrophotometer

• graph relating a measured quantity to concentration of the substance of interest

• the trendline of data (slope)

• method to logically answer questions
• starts with observations, then models or explanations, to hypothesis, to experiment, observations, interpretation

• states experiment will show no difference between control and experimental

• states that there will be a difference between the control and experimental

• nothing can be proved, only disproved

1. accuracy
2. precision

1. closeness of a measured or calculated value to its "true" value (hitting bulls eye)
2. closeness of repeated measurements to one another (hitting same spot)

• average
• describes center of the population

• describes how far away from the center the points are spread

• size
• charge
• hydrophobic/phillic
• concentration

• phospholipid bilayer
• phospholipid= hydrophillic heads, hydrophobic tails
• integral/peripheral proteins
• selectively permeable

• phillic
• assisted by facilitated transport or active transport

• polar
• water can because it's really small

• movement of water across a membrane because of different concentrations
• they move down free energy gradient (high free energy to low free energy)
• spontaneous (releases free energy)

• ΔG = ΔH - T * ΔS
• G = free energy
• H = entHlapy (Heat energy)
• T = temperature
• S = entropy (disorder)

• inversely proportional
• as they increase (^) in disorder, they decrease (v) in free energy and vice versa

• net movement of water from low osmotic concentration to high osmotic concentration

• has more solute
• a cell rapidly shrivels or crenates because of the rush of water out of the cell

• lower concentration
• the cell lysis because water rushes in

• same concetrations
• cell stays the same

• hydrostatic pressure exerted on cell walls as a result of water uptake from osmosis

• occurs when red blood cells are placed in a hypotonic solution
• they rapidly swell and rupture

1. through the lipid bilayer
2. through aqueous channels
3. by carrier-mediated transport

1. size
2. polarity
3. charge

• done by plants
• CO2 fixed to make organic molecules and O2
• 2 stages: Calvin Cycle and Light reactions

• done by humans and animals etc.
• takes in organic molecules and produces CO2/H2O

• absorb the light energy during the light reactions of photosynthesis
• in the thylakoid membrane

• absorb light energy and convert it to mechanical energy (ATP/NADPH)
• water is split and oxygen is released as a by-product

• uses ATP and NADPH from light reactions and CO2 to produce carbs (sugars)

• use light energy to make sugar by linking the two stages of photosynthesis

1. chlorophyll a
2. chlorophyll b
3. xanthophylls (nonpolar)
4. carotenes (nonpolar)

1. blue-green
2. yellow-green
3. yellow
4. yellow-orange

• chlorophyll b has a -CHO group in place of a's -CH3 group

• chromotography = separate complex mixtures

• separates pigments
• 2 phases, stationary and mobile.

• a breakdown product of chlorophyll a and b

• measured in (nm)
• visible light is 380 - 750 nm

• all colors except green are absorbed
• green is reflected or transmitted

• white light is absorbed and nothing to absorb the energy so its released as red light

• the specific wavelengths of light absorbed by a pigment 
• kind of like a 'fingerprint'

• ATP and NADPH are used to reduce carbon from CO2 to produce sugar

• is a function of the rate of CO2 used by photosynthesis and the rate of CO2 produced by respiration

• light reactions stop
• calvin cycle continues until ATP and NADPH are used up

• pigments receive insufficient photons to produce enough ATP and NADPH, so photosynthesis rates fall

• achieved at higher light intensities
• max of light absorbed(?)

• middle of the leaf
• has 2 layers: palisade layer and spongy layer

• CO2 from the atmosphere diffuses in the spongy layer in the stoma 
• opening is in the lower epidermis

• the "time to float" is inversely proportional to photosynthetic rate in the tissue

• oxygen produced by photosynthesis minus oxygen consumed by aerobic respiration

• metabolize organic nutrients and produce ATP in the absence of oxygen
• glycolysis converts glucose to 2 pyruvates and generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH

• lactic acid - creates lactate
• alcohol - in yeasts, plants, etc. pyruvate converted to ethanol and CO2

• amino acids, glucose, other carbs

• yes, b/c it would increase the rate of fermentation with the input of energy

• deoxyribonucleic acid (- b/c PO4)
• most common type of genetic material
• sequence of bases can turn into a gene that can make a trait

• field of research that uses tools found in nature

• small, circular DNA molecules that are not a part of the bacterial genome
• contain between 1,000-100,000 nucleotides

• change in DNA sequence

• process where new genes can be added to or replace the genes on a plasmid

• or restriction enzymes
• cut double stranded dna molecules
• has substrate specificity

• sequence at the DNA cut sites
• reads the same in both directions
• so cuts when DNA sequences are the same

• unpaired regions of DNA fragments

• the separation of charged molecules using an electric field
• molecules attracted to opposite charge
• larger DNA, shorter it goes
• smaller DNA, further it goes

• process where external DNA is transferred to or taken up by an organism

• the parts of DNA you can't see

• the parts of DNA you see physically (hair color, freckles..)