We are living in a _____ age of biology.

Biology provides exciting breakthroughs changing our ________.

Molecular biology - solving ____ and revealing _____.

Ecology helps us address _______ issues.

Neuroscience and evolutionary biology are reshaping _____ and ______.

Golden Age

Culture

Molecular - solving crimes and revealing ancestries

Ecology - enviromental issues

Neuroscience and Evolutionary - reshaping psychology and sociology.

Biology

Characteristics of living organisms ("LIFE")

O.R.GD.EU.RtE.R.E.

Order

Regulation

Growth & Development

Energy Utilization

Response to Environment

Reproduction

Evolution

10 Hierarchial Levels of organization

(small to large)

MA.O.C.T.OSO.O.P.C.E.B.

1. Molecules and Atoms

2. Organelles

3. Cells

4. Tissues

5. Organ Systems and Organs

6. Organisms

7. Populations

8. Communities

9. Ecosystems

10. Biosphere

The dynamics of any ecosystem depend on two main processes:

1. Cycling of Nutrients

2. Flow of Energy

The Cell Theory

 (def.)

The Cell

(def.)

2 major types of cells

(names)

1. Prokaryotic

2. Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic Cells

(characteristics vs. Eukaryotic)

• smaller
• simpler structure
• no organelles or nucleus
• DNA concentrated in nucleoid region, which is not enclosed by membrane

Eukaryotic Cells

(characteristics vs. prokaryotic)

• larger
• more complex
• contains many types of organelles
• nucleus enclosed by membrane

Prokaryotic Cells

(Domains)

Eukaryotic Cells

(Domains)

Eukarya

(all other kingdoms of living organisms)

• units of inheritance
• Transmitted from parents to offspring
• all cells use DNA as the chemical material of these

A, G, C, T

(All Together, Get Close)

Diversity (of life)

(# of species known and unknown)

is the hallmark of life

known life - 1.8 million species

total - range from 10 million to over 100 million species

Taxonomy

(def. and use)

*Systematic naming and classification species

It formalizes the hierarchial ordering or organisms.

Kingdom Plantae - Plants

Kingdom Fungi - Fungus

Kingdom Animalia - Animals

Protists - Multiple Kingdoms

NOTE

Each species is one twig of a brnaching tree of life extending back over 3 billion years.

- Descent with modification

- Natural Selection

Darwin's Inescapable Conclusion

(observations)

Observation 1: Overproduction and competition

Observation 2: Individual Variation

Conclusion: Unequal Reproductive Success

- called it natural selection

Natural Selection

 (about it)

• The unequal reproductive success (his conclusion)
• the product of this is adaptation
• is the mechanism of evolution

Artifical Selection

(def. & who does it)

*The selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals by humans

-Humans do the selection istead of the environment

Examples of natual selection in action:

(finches & bacteria)

-Galapagos finches change beak size depending upon the size and shape of available seeds.

- Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have evolved in response to the overuse of antibiotics

Evolution

(no def.)

-The unifying theme of biology

- One of biology's best demonstrated, most comprehensive, and longest lasting theories

Discovery Science

(def. & does)

Data from verifiable observations and measurements

-describes life at its many levels

- conclusions based on logic called inductive reasoninge.

Inductive Conclusion

(def.)

Hypothesis-driven science

(focus on & uses)

• experimental testing of an obeserved biologic phenomenon.
• use of scientific method
• deduction reasoning, flows from general to specific
• - "If ... then ... " logic

Hypothesis

(def.)

1. Observation

2. Question

3. Hypothesis <-----l

4. Prediction <-------l

5.Experiment -> --- ^

                                                         revise and repeat

Theory

(vs. hypothesis, not def.)

• much broader in scope than a hypothesis
• Theories only become widely accpeted if they are supported by an accumulation of exensive and varied evidence

NOTE

• Evolution of anitbiotic-resistant bacteris = huge problem
• Antibotics are being used more selectively
• Many farmers are reducing the use of antibiotics in animal feed.

Matter

(def. & composed & 3 physical states)

*Anything that occupies space and has mass

*Composed of chemical elements

- Solid

-Liquid

-Gas

Elements

(def. & #)

Substances that cannot be broken down into other substances.

92 naturally occuring elements on earth.

25 elements essential to life.

- Oxygen  65%

- Carbon   18.5%

- Hydrogen  9.5%

- Nitrogen  3.3%

Trace Elements

(characteristics & ex.)

Occur in smaller amounts

are esential for life

many are necassary for enzyme function

(ex. IODINE - deficiency causes goiter)

Compounds / Molecules

(def. & commons)

Substances that contain two or more elements in a fixed ratio.

common compounds include:

- NaCl (table salt)

- H₂O (water)

Atom

(def. & note)

Smallest unit of matter that still remains the properties of an element.

- Each element consists of one kind of atom.

Structure of atoms

(composed & parts)

composed of subatomic particles

- Proton - positively charged (+)

- Neutron - electrically Neutral

- Electron - negatively charges (-)

Protons and neutrons = IN nucleus

Electrons = orbit AROUND nucleus

-- nucleus is the atom's central core

- Number of PROTONS

- determines which element it is

NOTE

protons

ELEMENT

mass number

6

C

12

- alternate mass forms of an element

- the same number of protons and electrons, but different number of neutrons.

Radioactive Isotopes

(def & uses)

*

- to determine the fate of atoms in lovong organisms

- in PET scans to diagnose heart disorders and some cancers

Electrons

(characteristics/Facts)

- determine how an atom behaves when it encounters other atoms.

- orbit the nucleus of an atom in specific electron shells

- farther from the nucleus, greater its energy

- the number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical properties of an atom.

First electron shell holds ___ electrons

Outer electron shell holds ___ electrons

2

8

Chemical reactions

(atom & electron)

Enable atoms to give up or acquire electrons to complete their outer shells

Usually result in atoms:

-staying close together

- being held together by chemical bonds

- when an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes electrically charged.

- formed between oppositely charged ions

Covalent Bond

(how it forms & amount can form)

- forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons

- the number of bonds an atom can form is equal to the number of additional electrons needed to fill its outer shell

Single Bond

Double Bond

single bond = a single pair of shared electrons

double bond = two pairs of shared electrons

one with opposite charges on opposite ends

(ex. water)

NOTE

water is a compound in which the electrons in its covalent bonds are shared unequally

Hydrogen Bonds

(def. & is)

- interactions when the polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions between neighboring water molecules.

- basically a proton

Chemical Reactions

(def. & include & can/cant)

- changes in the chemical composition of matter

- cells constantly rearrange molecules by breaking existing chemical bonds and forming new ones

- include reactants & products

- can rearrange matter but cannot create or destroy matter

Reactants = starting materials

Products = end materials

Cells composed of ___% - __% of water

The abundance of water is a major reason ____ __ ____

70% - 95%

Earth is habitable

The ____ of water molecules and the ___ ___ that results explain most of water's life-supporting properties.

(4 properties)

polarity & hydrogen bonding

- water molecules stick together

- water has strong resistance to chang in temp.

- frozen water floats

- water is a common solvent for life

Cohesion

(def. & vital for)

Water molecules stick together as a result of hydrogen bonding.

- vital for water transport in plants

The measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.

- makes it so spiders can walk on water

- give water an unusually high surface tension.

- strong resistance to temperature change.

Heat

(def. & water)

The amount of energy associated with the movement of the atoms and molecules in a body of matter.

- water can absorb ans store large amounts of heat while only changing a few degrees in temperature.

Temperature

(def. & water)

measures the intensity of heat

- water can absorb and store large amounts of heat while only changing a few degrees in temperature.

- water molecules get cold enough, they move apart, forming ice

- a chunk of ice fewer molecules than an equal volume of liquid water.

- Ice floats because it is less dense than the liquid water around it.

- If ice didn't float bodies of water would freeze solid

- life in water couldnt survive in bodies of water froze solid.

Solution

(def.  & 2 parts)

a liquid consisting of a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

- solvent & solute

Solvent

(def.)

Solute

(def.)

Aqueous Solution

(def.)

A chemical compound the RELEASES H⁺ to a solution

pH < 7

A compound that ACCEPTS H⁺ and removes it from the solution

pH > 7

pH Scale

(def. & scale)

describes the acidity of a solution

Akaline / Basic = pH >7

Pure water = pH of 7

Acidic = pH < 7

increase basic = lower H⁺ concentration

increase acidic = greater H⁺ concentration

(basic - cleaners; acidic - citrus juice)

Buffers

(def. & ions)

Substances that resist pH change

-Accept H⁺ ions when excess

-Donate H⁺ ions when depleated

Proton

(charge, determines)

positive charge

determines element

Neutron

(charge, determines)

No Charge / Neutral

Determines isotope

Electron

(charge, participates,determine)

Negative Charge

Participates in chemical reactions

outer-shell electrons determine chemical behavior

Nucleus

(consists of)

cell is mostly ____.

The rest of the cell consists mainly of __-__ molecules

water

carbon-based molecules

- 4 electrons in outer shell

- up to four covalent bonds

- attach to other carbons

-form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons

hydrocarbons

(def. & uses)

the simplest organic compound

- organic molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms

- larger ones form fuels for engines

- hydrocarbons of fat molecules fuel our bodies.

-simplest hydrocarbon

-consisting of a single carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.

NOTE

Organic molecules have unique 3D shapes

shapes relate to their functions

Properties of an organic compound depend on:

(2 things)

- Carbon skeleton

- Atoms attached to the skeleton

Functional Groups

(def. & 2 ex.)

groups of atoms that usually participate in chemical reactions

2 common examples:

- Hydroxyl groups (-OH)

- Carboxyl groups (C=O)

Four categories of large organic molecules

- 3 are macromolecules

- Carbs (macro)

- Proteins (macro)

- Nucleic Acids (macro)

- Lipids

macromolecules are polymers!

Polymers

(made by)

Dehydration Reaction / Synthesis

(what happens)

- links 2 monomers together

- removes a molecule of water

Hydrolysis

(what happens)

- breaks bonds between monomers

- adds a molecule of water

* Reverses the dehydration reaction

Sugars or sugar polymers

small sugar molecules

-soft drinks & other sweet foods

long starch molecules

- pasta & potatoes

simple sugars

cant be broken down by hydrolysis into smaller sugars

- glucose in sports drinks

- fructose found in fruit

- main fuels for celluar work

- in aqueous solutions, form rings

molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures

- glucose & fructose

C₆H₁₂O₆

- a double sugar

- constructed from two monosaccharides

- formed by a dehydration reaction

*Lactose in milk (glucose = galactose)

*Malted Milk Shakes (glucose = glucose)

* Sucrose in table sugar ( glucose = fructose)

NOTE

high-fructose corn syrup instead of sucrose

sucrose: rarely used in processed foods

-complex carbohydrates

- made of long chains of sugar units and polymers of monosaccharides.

- used by plant cells to store energy

- Potatoes and grains

- Used by animal cells to store energy

- converted to gulcose when it is needed

- Most abundant organic compound on earth

- forms cable-like fibrils in tough plant cell walls

- cannot be broken apart by most animals

water-loving

adhering water to their surface

Which do / dont dissolve readily in water?

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Cellulose

Mono & disaccharides = DO

Cellulose = Dont

not macromolecules nor polymers

Hyrophobic

2 major classes:

1. fats

2. steriods

Fats (triglyceride)

(consist of)

carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has:

unsaturated: fewer than max # of hydrogens

saturated: max # of hydrogens

-saturated: no double bonds

plant: low in saturated, liquid @ room temp

Animal: high saturated, solid @ room temp, atherosclerosis

- adds hydrogen

- converts unsaturated to saturated

- makes liquid fats solid @ room temp

- creats trans fat

very different from fats in structure and function

- carbon skeleton is bent to form four used rings

-vary by functional groups attached to core set of rings

- a key component of cell membrane

- the "base steroid" for other steroids (estrogen & testosterone)

- polymers of amino acid monomers

- perform most tasks the body needs to function

- form enzymes, chemicals that change the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed in the process

- central carbon atom

- 3 of attachment groups common to all amino acids

- unique side group

NOTE

ALL proteins are constructed from a common set of 20 kinds of amino acids.

Creating long chains of amino acids

(long chains of peptide bonds)

The specific sequence of amino acids in a protein

- a slight change in this affects its ability to function

NOTE

completed polypeptide form proteins,

which differ in their arrangement of amino acids

proteins consisting of:

one peptide -

more than one peptide-

1- have 3 levels of structure, tertiary structure

more than 1- have a fourth, quanternary structure

A proteins shape enables the protein to carry out its specific function in a cell

what determines a proteins shape?

(3 things)

-the environment

-unfavorable temperatures (above 104)

- pH changes

*cause a protein to denture

- alzheimers

- mad cow

- parkinsons

- Macromolecules that provide the directions for building proteins

- DNA and RNA

- genetic material that organiama inherot from their parents

- polymers of nucleotides

NOTE

the code of DNA must be translated from "nucleic acid language" to "protein language"

Nucleotide

(3 parts)

- a five-carbon sugar

- a phosphate group

- a nitrogenous base

- (A) Adenine

- (G) Guanine

- (T) Thymine

- (C) Cytosine

- link nucleotide monomers into long chains called polynucleotides.

- form covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next

- form a sugar-phosphate backbone

ribonucleic acid

-usually single stranded

- uses the sugar ribose(instead of deoxyribose)

- the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)

molecules -> functions

(carbs, lipid, protein, nucleic acid)

Carbs - diet energy, storage, plant structure

Lipids - long-term energy storage (fats), hormones (steroids)

Protein - Enzymes, structure, storage, contraction, transport, and others

Nucleic Acid - Information storage

Primary Structure - sequence of amino acids

Secondary Structure - localized folding

Tertiary Structure - overall shape

Quaternary Structure - found in proteins with multiple polypeptides

-All living things are composed of cells.

- All cells come from other cells

single-celled -- prokaryoted & protists

multicelled -- plants, animals, and fungi

Electron Microscope (EM)

(uses & does)

Uses a beam of electrons, which results in better resolving power than the light microscope.

- magnify up to 100,000 times

- distinguish between objects 0.2 nanometers apart

Scanning Electron Microscopes

(examine)

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)

(use for)

2 major cell types & domains

common features for all

-Prokaryotic Cells - Bacteria & Archaea

-Eukaryotic Cells - Plants, Fungi, and Animals

* All bounded by a thin plasma membrane

* All have DNA and ribosomes

Prokaryotic - 3.5 billion years ago

Eukaryotic - 2.1 billion years ago

PROKARYOTIC cells are OLDER

Organelles

(def.)

Nucleus

(houses)

Cytoplasm

(def. & has)

Region between the nucleus and plasma membrane

- consists of various organelles suspended in fluid

Plant Cells

 (vs. Animal Cells)

- protective cell walls

- corners not rounded cell

- has chloroplasts

Chloroplasts

(does)

Membranes are composed mostly of:

(2 things)

- lipids

- proteins

NOTE

Plasma membrane seperates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings.

NOTE

The lipids belong to a special category called phospholipids.

Phospholipids form a two-layered membrane called the phospholipid bilayer

Hyrophilic Head

Hydrophobic Tail

- fluid because molecules can move freely past one another.

- mosaic because of the diversity of proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer

- membrane proteins help regulate traffic across the membrane and perform other functions

- made of cellulose

- protects the cells

- maintain cell shape

- keep the cells from absorbing too much water

- lack cell walls

- have an extracellular matrix

- surface contain cell junctions

- helps hold cells together in tissues

- protects and supports them

Cell Junctions

(def.)

Nuclear Envelope

(def.)

Nucleolus

(where, whats made)

Located in the nucleus

Where ribosomes are made

fibers formed form DNA molecules & associated proteins

- Each chromatin fiber constitues one CHROMOSOME

Ribsomes

(responsible for, formed where)

- responsible for protein synthesis

- made in nucleolus, assembled in cytoplasma