Plants are...

(3)

1. Terrestrial (Land-dwelling)

2. Autotrophic

3. Multicelular Eukaryotes

1. Mosses (Bryophytes)

2. Ferns

3. Gymnosperms

4. Angiosperms

"Fluid transport" system

Consists of 2 parts: Xylem, Phloem

• Carries water and nutrients from roots to leaves
• Hollow tubes: Arranged end to end, dead at maturity
• Tracheids
• Vessel Elements 
• Water moves upward from the roots through the xylem: H2O is able to move up to the top of the tree because of HYDROGEN BONDS (COHESION)

• Carries glucose from leaves and distributes to rest of plant
• Living tissue
• Arranged end to end like tubes
• Carries the "food" for the plant
• Sugar source ---> Sugar sink 

• Pass the phloem sap please!
• Sugar, Red, and Black Maples
• Early spring sap colleted (2-3%surcose)
• Sap boiled unti concentration = 65-75% sugar
• Takes between 30-50 L of sap to make 1 L of syrup 

• Very early/Primitive land plants
• No Vacular system --> must remain small - close to H2)
• No cuticle, no seeds (spores)
• Completely dependent on water for fertilizaiton/reproduction
• SEEDLESS/NONVASCULAR
• Peat: Burned for fuel (heating), smoky flavor in Scotch whisky 

• Evolved after mosses
• Adapted to slightly drier environment
• Vasulcar system
• Cuticle, no seeds (spores)
• Partially dependent on water to reproduce
• SEEDLESS/VASCULAR
• Sporangia: Spore-producing bodies

• Conifers
• Evolved after Ferns
• SEED-BEARING/VASCULAR

• Flowering Plants
• Evolved after Gymnosperms
• SEED-BEARING/VASCULAR

Grows for several seaons until mature. Blooms and sets seeds for years 

Notablie Perennials: Giant Sequoia "General Sherman" Tree, 2,500 years old = Biggest

Bristlecone Pines (>4,750 years old) = Oldest 

• Growth in length (in shoots & roots)
• Herbaceous = No true wood 
• Originates ONLY at meristems (mitosis) 

• Growth in width (Thickness)
• Stems and roots
• Vascular camibum adds girth, pushing outer later farther out
• Produces annual growth rings 

Educated guess to explain a problem 

GUESS

A set of observed regularities expressed in a concise verbal or mathematica statement 

DESCRIBE

Ex. Law of gravity

An explanation for an observation or series of obversations that is substantiated by a considerable body of evidence

EXPLAIN

• Voyage of The Beagle 
• Reading list: Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," and The Bible
• Observations: Marine fossils (sea snails) embedded at the height of 13,210 feet, geological observations of south america
• Galapagos Islands - Darwin's Finches: Ground finch - large beak for cracking seeds on the ground, Small tree finch - Uses beak to grasp incests, Woodpecker finch - uses tools to hunt fer termites and other insects 

• Stressed "acquired traits" (wrong): eg. giraffes stretched their necks to feed and "acquired" longer necks, babies had longer necks
• felt that organisms could CHANGE THEIR TRAITS and PASS ON THESE CHANGES to offspring
• Got the genetics wrong
• But, said species changed to be better suited to environment - right! 

• Survival & Reproduction = An organism's contribution of genetic information to future generations
• Darwin 

• Descent with modification (tree of life) - 1859 

• Gives us real dates (radiometric dating)
• Earth is OLD - Earliest fossils (prokaryotes/bacteria) 3.5 billion years
• 1. Sedimentary rocks form, 2. Additional strata added over time, 3. Sea levels change, sedimentary rocks exposed
• Younger, more complex - Older, simpler 

Missing links - found

ex. Basilosaurus fossil (egypt and Pakistan)

Similarity in structure due to common ancestry 

• Forelimbs of diverse mammals
• Show common ancestry
• Derived rom a common ancestral structure
• May have specialized into different functions
• Backbone, pelvic girdle, coccyx (bones where may other mammals have a tail), thighbone attached to pelvic girdle, small bone attached to pelvic girdle 

• Come from an ancestral species
• No longer serve an fuction
• Are neutral traits, not harmful, and thus not "selected against" in origins of new species: applendix, hip bones in Pythones - Whales, ear muscles in humans

• Biology <--> Geography
• The geographic distribution of species
• Species on Galapagos more similar to species south american mainland (than to species from other, more distant islands), austrailia's large marsupial population 

• Animals only, especially the vertebrates
• The more closely related 2 species are the more similar their embryo will be for a longer period of development 

• Counts mutations to an important gene
• Can compare any living species, or fossil tissues that still have DNA
• Shows how closely they are related 

Change in allele frequencies over time

Alleles are not good or bad

Individuals don't evolve...populations over time do! 

Traits that have been subjected to natural selection 

eg. spines on a cactus, prevent predation, reflect light, reduce water loss, "catch" condensation 

...Camouflage

Ex. tree mantid - Trinidad, Leaf Mantid - Costa Rica, Flower Mantid - Malaysia 

Shifts overall makeup of population by favoring 1 extreme 

Eg. ocal environment changes/migration 

1. Directional Selection
2. Disruptive Selection 
3. Stabilizing Selection

Favors opposite extremes over intermediate

eg. patchy enviroments, lead to 2 beak sizes in Cameroon finches 

Types of Selection 

(2) 

External pressure from environment - Driving selection 

(Food, disease, climate, predators)

• Change in the gene pool of a small population due to chance
• Does not increase fitness
• Another mechanism of evolution

• Large population reduced by disaster
• A few survivors regrow the population, but with much less diversity (by chance some alleles are present, some are lost)
• eg. Cheetah - loss of variation, less adaptability 

• Establishment of a new colony whose gene poo differs from the parent population
• the genes present in the small population affect the gene pool of the new population
• Phenotypes of original population. a seabird carries a few seeds, stuck to its feathers, from the mainland to a remote oceanic island. Phenotype of new island population 

• Gene forms
• Not necessarily good or bad
• Whether an allele has a postivie effect on an organism fitness often dependson the environmental conditions at the time! 
• eg. fur color in tulus

1. Eukaryotic
2. Multicellular 
3. Heterotropic Organisms ( Obtain mutrients by ingestion) 
4. Most animals have muscle and nerve cells
5. Enhanced feeding, search for/chase food, most complex brains

Animal Diets 

(3) 

1. Carnivores
2. Herbivores
3. Omnivores

• ...sexually! And undergo embryonic development
• Some undergo metamorphosis
• Larva: Sexually immature form of an animal, anatomically distinct from adult form, different food/habitat, different mobility

Body Symmetry 

(2) 

1. Radial symmetry, Bilateral symmetry
2. FORM FITS FUNCTION

• 1/4ths, 4ths
• Identical all around central axis
• Many are sessile (attached to substratum) or drifting/weakly swimming animals - eg. plankton
• Adapted to acquire food from any side 

• 1/2, Left/right side
• Most are active movers
• Most have a head end
• adapted for movement (swimming, crawling, burrowing)

Animals with a backbone: reptiles, mammals, birds, fish, amphibians

<5%

Plenty of diverse feature but...NO backbone

95%

Sponges, Cnidarians, Nematodes,  Anelids, Molluscs, Arthropods, Echinoderms, Flatworms

• Filter feeders
• Simplest animals - no muscles, no nerves, brain
• Sessile as adults

• Radial symmetry
• Tentiacles with stingers (nematocysts)
• Have simple muscle-life contractile cells
• Have Polyp (stationary) and Medusa (floating) forms: Corals are Polyps forms, sea jellies are medusa forms

• Roundworms
• Bilateral symmetry, Cephalized (has a head), Soil (decomposers), parasites on plant roots as well as human parasites too
• 1. A free-living roundworm, 2. Parasitic roundworms in pork, 3. Canine heart infected with parasitic roundworms

• Segmented worms, complete digestive tract
• Earthworms - Giant Australian earthworm, Polychaetes - Christmas tree worm, Leeches -Europeam freshwater leech

• Soft-bodied: Shell may be external exoskeleton (eg.clam), she may be interal (eg. octopus), gills 
• Gastropods - snail, sea slug, Bivavles (hinged shell) - Scallop, Cephalopods (large brain and tentacles) - Octopus, squid

• Segemented body plans
• Hardened exoskeleton of chitin molting between stages
• 2 out of 3 species are arthropods! Estimated pop = a billion billion (10^18)
• Major groups: Arachnids, crustaceans, Millipedes and Centipedes, insects

• Spiny skin
• Sea star, sea urchin(tube feet), sand dollar, Sea cucumber (radial-like symmetry, hardened spine skin, internal skeleton [endoskeleton], tube feet)

• Bilater symmetry
• Tapeworm (reproductive unit with skin removed, head, suckers, hooks), Planarian (digestive tract [gastrovascular cavity], nerve cords, mouth, eyespots [detects light], nervous tissue cluster [simple brain], blue fluke

• Limited ability to regulate temperature
• Small, primitive brains
• Little investment in offspring
• Poor adataions to cold; no hair or feathers
• Lays eggs
• eg. lizard, snakes, turtles

• Frogs, toads, salamanders
• reguire moisture
• Very sensitive skin
• Poor adaptations to cold
• Lay eggs

• Control heat loss with feathers
• Mobile in air, water and land
• Hollow bones
• Digest quickly
• Lay eggs for young 

• Primarily in water
• Absorb O2 from water using gills
• Small, primitive brains
• Some eggs, some live births

• Best at regulating temperature
• Adapt to cold conditions
• Bear live young
• Invest time in raising, training young
• Mental plasticity - learning
• Lactation

• Bird's form makes flight possible
• Bones: Honeycombed construction, lightweight but strong
• Xylem: Water transport tissue in plants form makes water transport possible 

• More Common
• A response that reduces a stimulues (control of room temp)

• Less common
• response that intensifies a stimulus (eg. contractions during childbirth)

• Maintenance of internal body temperature (within a tolerable range)

• response to invading microorganisms
• Immune system releases pyrogens (fire makers)
• Pyrogens stimulate the control center to raise body temp = feber
• AIDS in fighting viruses/infection

Thermoregulators

(2)

• Derive the majority of their body heat from metabolism
• Maintain a fairly constant body temp
• Incldes birds and mammels

• Derive the majority of their body heat by absorbing it from their surroundings
• Includes most invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles

• The divergence of one species into 2 or more
• The origin of new species 

• Species: Latin for kind or apperance

• Populations or organisms belong to the same species if they can: interbreed (mate), produce fertile offsping...in a natural setting
• Problems: Impractical - Not valid for extinct species, Asexual species, Remote population
• Solutions: Observable and measureable trains (for fossils), ecological niches (role in the environment), genetic similarities (DNA)

Change in timing of mating

ex. fish example - Western Spotted Skunks (fall) and Eastern Spotted skunks (late winter)

Morphological differences, prevent mating/pollination

ex. change in flower structure such that insect pollinator no longer "fits" flower 

Ex. California White Sage - Black sage = polinated by small bees (large bees can't fit on petal), white sage = Larger petal (landing platform) for larger Carpenter bees, if smaller bees land, they do not brush up against stamen (no pollen transfer)

Sperm and ova (eggs) are chemically incompatible and will not fuse

Proteins on surface of eggs and sperm cannot bind to each other, especially import in external fertilization

Ex. Red abalone - Male gamete contains protein (lysin) that dissolves a hole in egg envelope, but only from the same species

Prevents successful mating and fertilization between species 

Behavioral Isolation, Temporal Isolation, Habitat Isolation, Mechanical Isolation, Gametic Isolation

Mechanism that operates should interspecies mating occur and form hybrid zygotes (fertilized egg0

Hybrid Animals: Male lion + female tiger = male/female liger

Mechanisms of Speciation

(2)

• Takes place within habitat of parent species
• Reproductive barrier forms within a subset of population
• Accidents during cell division = result in extra set of chromosomes (Polyploid [gametes can not back cross with parents, because meiosis needs homologous pairs])
• Can occur in a single generation
• Over 25% of plant species are Polyploid

All things on Earth can be classified into...

(2)

Living

Mammals, birds, incests, plants, fungi, bacteria

Nonliving

Wind, substrate, precipitation, sunlight, temperature, nutrients

Earth

Biosphere

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms

Organ systems

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Molecules

Atoms 

Subatomic Particles

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms

Agricultural productivity (went up)

Insect-borne disease (went down)

DDT (miracle weapon)

However, DDT threatened survival of predatory birds and began showing up in human milk

Rachel Carson 

The effect on pesticides on the nature

# individuals/unit area

Measuring: Count all individuals, Estimate density (1. count individuals in sample plots eg. alligators in km2, 2. Indirect indicators eg. Rodent burrows, bird nests) 

Population Density 

Mark recapture Method

1. Place traps w/in population boundary

2. Mark captured animals (tag, colors, collers)

3. Release marked animals

4. Time passes...marked animals mix with population...set traps again

5. 2nd capture of marked and unmarked animals -> estimate pop.density

Consider a single bacterium...

after 20 min: 1 becomes 2

After 40 min: 2 becomes 4

After 60 min: 4 becomes 8

After 1 1/2 days: You have enough bacteria t oform a layer 1ft. deep over the entire Earth

Idealized population growth that is slowed by limiting factors 

(hunting, prey)

Population-limiting factor whose effects intensify as the population rises in size

When population size rise ...clutch (eggs in a nest) size decreases = decrease in birth rates

Population-limiting factor whose intensity is unrelated to poulation density

Seasonal weather changes, abrupt environmental trauma (fire, flood, storm)

• Large size
• Slow development
• Long-lived
• Reproduction later in life
• Few large offspring
• Parental care
• K-selected

• Small size
• Fast development
• Short-lived
• Reproduction early in life
• Many small offspring
• Not parental care
• R-Selected

Interactions among organisms

(2)

Interactions within a species

ex. dominance competitions in male seals or competition for food among grazers

Interactions between different species

ex. competition between penguins, seals, and orca for fish to eat

When 2 species with identical niches compete...

1. Local extinction of less competitive species

2. One species evolves to use a different set of resources

Differentiation of niches that allows similar species to coexist in a community

All species feed on insects/small arthropods. Each species uses a different niche (feeds in a different location) = Competition for food minimzed 

Tertiary Consumer

Secondary Consumer

Primary Consumer

Primary Producer

...Only about 10% of the E stored in biological mass at each trophic level is converted to biological mass at the next level. 

The other 90% of E is lost in transfer - mostly as heat

• Fewer top carnibores than plants and herbivores
• Top carnivores are often the first to suffer when the ecosystem is distrupted
• Top carnivores are often the species most vulnerable to extinction

• Reduce the density of the strongest competitors
• Help maintain species diversity
• Have a drastic effect on the other species in that ecosystem
• Pisaster ochraceus - Efficient predator of the common mussel, mytilus californicus. Removal of seastar, mussels increased. Overall diversity decreased
• Sea otters
• Wolves

• Edward Jenner 1796
• Vaccination/immunization: Immune system exposed to harmless version of pathogenic microbe, triggers immune response, creates antibodies, protected against (real) pathogen

• Prevent poreign invaders from getting inside
• Physical barriers, chemical agents

• Outer layter of intact skin (most bacteria/viruses can't penetrate)
• Hair in the nostrils (filter particles from air)
• Mucous membranes: In respiratory and digestive track, sticky mucus traps bacteria, dust & other particles, cilia sweep mucus (and bacteria) outward - swallowed, expelled by coughing and sneezing

• Nonspecific (Innate) defenses
• Stomach acid (pH of about 3) - kills most bacteria swallowed
• Sweat, saliva, and tears contain antimicrobial chemicals (ex. lysozyme - enzyme disrupts bacterial cell walls)
• Oil/sweat glads make the skin acidic

• Fights infection
• Lymph nodes - saclike organs packed with WBC
• Network of vessels
• Lymph - fluid similar t ointerstitial fluid surrounding body cells
• Bone marrow - makes your blood

• Internal defenses (roaming patrols) cellular counterattack
• Macrophages, natural killer cells, Proteins

• Phagocytic WBCs
• Patrol in the blood, engulfing bacteria, viruses

• WBCs
• Destory infected cells (perforin)

• Interferon - interfere with viral growth
• Complement proteins - cause cells to lyse

• Trauma
• Histamine & prostaglandins released
• Vasodilation & leaky vessels (histamine)
• Swelling, redness, pain (prostaglandins)
• Phagocytes, fluid move in phagocytes engulf bacteria and cell debris

• The temperature response
• Macrophages send a message to the brain to raise body's temperature (pyrogens, travel to hypothalamus, stimulate fever)
• Fever inhibits microbial growth
• Very high fevers are dangerous because they can denature proteins
• Anti-inflammatory, Anti-pyretic

• Every cell in your body displays a "self" marker (Major histocompatibility complex MHC)
• Immune System recognizes "YOU"

• Primary Immune response (specific defenses)
• 1st exposure to antigen
• Humoral Immune Response (Antibody-mediated response)
• Cell-mediated Immune Response

• B Lymphocytes (Bcells)
• Originate & mature in bone marrow
• Circulate in blood & lymph
• Produces antibodies

• Making an army of antibodies
• B cells encounter antigens
• B cells differentiate into effector cells
• Antibodies secreted up to 2,000/second
• Antibodies circulate in bloodstream

• Protein that attaches (binds) to a particular antigen
• Consists of 4 polypeptide chains. 2 long heavy chain, 2 short light chains
• Y shape
• The tip of the Y is the antigen binding sit
• Antigen and antibody have complementary shapes...lock and key
• Marks the antigen for destruction
• Variable region has specific shape

• Can last decades
• Elicit a faster and stronger response
• Next time the antigen is encountered: secondary immune response

Cell-mediated response

T cells respond to pathogens that have already entered body cells

1. First recognize the enemy...

Macrophage ingest micriobe

Displays self and nonself proteins on surface

Helper T cell binds to a self-nonself complex

2. Then...sound the alarm...and mobilize the army

• T cells that kill other cells...
• infected/transplanted cells display foreign antigens or (MHC) on surface
• Cytotoxic T cell binds to infected cell
• Cytotoxic T cell produces perforin - cell death
• Programmed cell death (apoptosis)

• Permanent
• Body stimulated to produce antibodies
• Exposure to antigen
• Vaccination
• Getting sick

• Temporary
• Receieve premade antibodies
• Don't produce your own
• Nursing infant
• Antivenin
• Traveling overseas

• Autoimmune diseases
• Immune system can't distinguish self cells from nonself cells
• Body attacks its own tissues
• Rheumatoid arthritis (attacks joint tissue)
• Multiple sclerosis (MS) T cells wrongly attack proteins in neurons
• Type I diabetes - attacks insulin producing cells in pancreas

• Allergies
• Body mounts a major defnse against a harmless substance. Antigens = allergnes
• Inflammatory response. Histamine ->sneezing, coughing, itching (take antihistamine)
• Servere allergies - anaphylactic shock