1.  SENSORY FEEDBACK:  used to correct errors, necssary for any movement

2.  MULTIPLE LEVELS of CONTROL:  organized hierarchichally AND parrallel (cortical motor areas, brainstem, spinal chord)

3.  MOTOR PROGRAMS and LEARNING

the three CATEGORIES OF MOVEMENT are: 

1.  VOLUNTARY:  goal oriented, learned

2.  REFLEXIVE:  involuntary, stereotyped, rapid

3.  RYTHMIC MOTOR PATTERNS:  mixes featurs of both 

RESPONSE CHUNKING is: 

combining "chunks" of motor acts, helps us learn more complex actions 

MOTOR PROGRAM is: 

 -learned

-a fixed sequence of movements  

--they take less processing power to execute, making them faster and more efficient

--SMA is involved in well learned sequences 

the two different types of muscle are: 

1.  SMOOTH:  skeletal and cardiac

2.  CARDIAC

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION is: 

-the synapse of a motor neuron and a muscle

--when the neuron fires it releases ACh causing the muscle to contract 

 a MOTOR UNIT is:

-a single motor neuron and a bundle of muscle fibers

--a high INERVATION RATIO leads to finer muscle control 

PROPRIOCEPTORS are: 

-receptors that inform the brain about your body/position

-- sensitive to movement of body part or joint

--provide sensory feed back 

 name the two types of muscle proprioceptors

1.  Golgi Tendon Organs

2.   Musce Spindles

GOLGI TENDON ORGANS are: 

 -muscle proprioceptors

-embedded in tendons

-respond to increase in muscle tension

 -they lead to muscle relaxation

MUSCLE SPINDLES are: 

-proprioceptors embedded in muscle tissue

-respond to change in muscle length

-lead to muscle contraction 

 -instrumental in the stretch reflex

**STRETCH REFLEX is: 

-occurs when the length of the muscle is suddenly extended

-utilizes the muscle spindle

-monosynaptic:  one bi-polar neuron leads from spindle to the SC and one neuron leads from the SC to the spindle, causing it to contract

WITHDRAWAL REFLEX is:

-when you experience sudden pain

-not monosynaptic 

**RECIPROCAL INHIBITION is: 

- coordinates antagonistic muscles by exciting one and inhibiting the other

-part of the withdrawal reflex, leads to retraction of the hurt body part from offending stimulus

 **RECURRENT COLLATERAL INHIBITION is:

-every time a motor neuron fires it inhibits itself, thus shifting responsibility for muscle action to another motor unit in the muscle's motor pool

--why?  to give certain motor units a rest and distribute the work load 

MOTOR POOL is: 

-all the motor neurons that control a single muscle 

WALKING is: 

-a RYTHMIC motor pattern and a complex sensorimotor PROGRAM that involves integrating sensory inputs and generating a pattern of motor inputs

--can be controlled by the spinal chord, as demonstrated by the cat w/ the broken spine walking when placed on a treadmill. 

**list the CORTICAL MOTOR AREAS: 

1.  Primary Motor Cortex

2.  Secondary Motor Areas

-premotor cortex

-supplementary motor area (SMA)

3.  Sensorimotor Association Area

-prefrontal cortex

-parietal cortex 

the PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX (M1) is located: 

-on the precentral gyrus 

how is the PRMRY MTR CRTX (M1) organized? 

-somatotopically

--control is mainly contralateral 

 the primary motor cortex (m1) recieves input from:

-secondary motor areas

-prefrontal cortex

-primary somatosensory cortex 

damage to the primary motor crtx results in:

-astereognosia

-reduced speed, force, accuracy

-difficulty in moving body parts independantly

--usually result in contralateral deficits 

--doesn't result in permanent paralysis 

ASTEREOGNOSIA is:

-the inability to recognize objects by feeling them 

the two SECONDARY MOTOR AREAS are:

 1.  Premotor Cortex

-movement preparation

-responsive to external stimuli

2.  Supplementary Motor Areas (SMA)

 -program complex sequences

-responsive to internal stimuli 

the PREMOTOR CORTEX: 

-is responsible for movement preparation

-is responsive to external stimuli 

i.e. see soda, reach for it 

SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA (sma):

-active during execution of motor programs

-part of the secondary motor areas

-responsive to internal stimuli 

ANATOMICAL similarities between the two SECONDARY MOTOR AREAS are: 

-reciprocally connected with M1

-reciprocally connected with each other

-both project to brain stem 

FUNCTIONAL similarities between the two SECONDARY MOTOR AREAS are: 

-electrical stimulation elicits complex movement of the body

-neurons fire PRIOR to AND during voluntary movements (mostly prior to) 

effects of damage to

SECONDARY MOTOR AREAS are: 

-THEY CAUSE MORE COMPLEX

MOVEMENT DISORDERS

-difficulty in developing appropriate movement strategy

 the two SENSORIMOTOR ASSOCIATION AREAS are:

1.  Prefrontal Cortex

-highest in the sensorimotor hierarchy

-MEDIATES PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING

2.  Posterior Parietal Cortex

-MEDIATES MULTIMODAL INTEGRATION

-processes body and object positions in space

damage to the

POSTERIOR PARIETAL may result in: 

-Apraxia

-contralateral neglect syndrome 

APRAXIA is: 

-the inability to correctly perform learned skilled movements

--symptoms can be bilateral

--often caused by unilateral damage to the left parietal 

CONTRALATERAL NEGLECT is: 

- a disturbance of a patient's ability to respond to stimuli on the opposite side of the body from the damage

--usually damage to the right parietal results in left neglect.  for some reason right neglect is rarer. 

POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX is: 

-a sensorimotor association area

***-mediates  multimodal integration

-processes body and object positions in space 

PREFRONTAL CORTEX is: 

-a sensorimotor association area

***-mediates planning and decision making

***-the highest area in the sensorimotor hierarchy 

CORTICOSPINAL TRACTS are: 

-the routes through which M1 sends signals to motor neurons in the spinal chord 

--there are 2:  dorsolateral and ventromedial motor tracts

DORSOLATERAL MOTOR TRACTS are: 

-part of the Pyramidal Motor System

-a corticospinal tract

-controls fingers and toes

-contralateral 

VENTROMEDIAL TRACTS are: 

-part of the pyramidal motor system

-corticospinal tracts

-in control of the torso

-bilateral control 

why can hemiplegic (half-paralyzed) patients hold their bodies upright? 

-because of bilateral innervation, or innervation from both hemispheres 

**the CEREBELLUM is: 

-latin for 'little brain'

-only 10% of mass of brain but contains over 50% of the brain's neurons

-has both sensory and motor components 

functions of the CEREBELLUM are: 

-coordination and timing of movements

-correcting for errors in movements

-motor learning

-classical conditioning 

damage to the CEREBELLUM can result in: 

-Ataxia:  decreased coordination of complex movements, impaired balance, and decreased

muscle tone 

-learning problems, particularly involving classical conditioning

ATAXIA is: 

-decreased coordination of complex movements

-impaired balance

-decreased muscle tone

-results from damage to the cerebellum

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is:

-mediated by the cerebellum (for our purpsoses)

-when a natural response to a stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that wouldn't normally elicit that response

i.e. dogs see food, drool.  bell, food, drool.  bell, drool. 

**the BASAL GANGLIA are:

-a collection of large subcortical areas involved in selection and initiation of motor sequences

--caudate nucleus and putamen

--globus pallidus

-- substantia nigra

functions of the BASAL GANGLIA are: 

-selection and initiation of motor sequences

-motor learning

-some cognitive functions