Term
| The vertebrate body is defended from infection by ? lines of defense, they are... |
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Definition
1. skin and mucous membranes
2.cellular counterattack
3. specific immune response |
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Term
| The ? is the first defense against invasion by microbes |
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Definition
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Term
| the skin has two layers, they are... |
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Definition
an outer epidermis
a lower dermis |
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Term
| a ? layer lies underneath the dermis |
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Definition
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Term
| The epidermis of the skin is from ? to ? cells thick |
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Definition
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Term
| the outer layer of epidermis is called the |
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Definition
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Term
| the layer that replaces the stratum corneum cells lies below it and is called the |
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Definition
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Term
| the cells in the ? layer are among the most actively dividing in the vertebrate body |
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Definition
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Term
| The dermis of the skin is from ?- ? times thicker than the epidermis |
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Definition
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Term
| The dermis of the skin provides ? for the epidermis |
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Definition
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Term
| the subcutaneous layer beneath the dermis is comprised of that act as ? |
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Definition
| fat-rich cells; shock absorbers and provide insulation |
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Term
| The skin also provides ? defense in addition to the physical defense |
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Definition
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Term
| ? make the skin surface very acidic |
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Definition
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Term
| sweat contains the enzyme ?, which attacks and digests the cell walls of many bacteria |
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Definition
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Term
| How does lysozyme protect the skin? |
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Definition
| attacks and digests the cell walls of many bacteria |
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Term
| tears contain ? to fight bacterial infections |
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Definition
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Term
| What provides protection in the digestive tract? |
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Definition
| stomach acid and digestive enzymes provide protection in the digestive tract |
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Term
| what helps to trap most microorganisms in the respiratory tract? |
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Definition
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Term
| When an infection occurs, a host of cellular and chemical defenses swing into action, including... |
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Definition
-cells that kill invading microbes
-proteins that kill invading microbes
-the inflammatory response
-the temperature response |
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Term
| The central location for the storage and distribution for the substances involved in the second line of defense is the... |
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Definition
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Term
| There are ? types of white blood cells that kill microbes. They are... |
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Definition
| 3; macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells |
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Term
| macrophages kill bacteria by |
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Definition
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Term
| most macropahges patrol the vessels of the body, circulating as precursors called |
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Definition
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Term
| neutrophils ingest bacteria but, more importantly, they... |
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Definition
| secrete chemicals to neutralize everything living in the infected area, including themselves |
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Term
| natural killer cells attack... |
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Definition
| body cells that are infected |
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Term
| natural killer cells kill by puncturing the membrane of an infected cell with ?, which allows water to rush in and burst the cell |
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Definition
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Term
| the ? is a very effective chemical defense in vertebrates |
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Definition
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Term
| the complement system is comprised of approximately ? different proteins that circulate freely in the ? in an inactive state until they encounter either ? |
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Definition
| 20; plasma; a fungal or bacteria cell wall |
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Term
| complement proteins then aggregate to form a ? that forms a pore in the foreign cell’s membrane, causing water to rush in and burst the cell |
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Definition
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Term
| Another class of proteins that kill invading microbes are called ? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| messengers to other cells in the vicinity of an infection to prevent a virus from spreading to new cells |
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Term
| What happens to viruses after they come in contact with interferons? |
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Definition
| the viruses still infect but they are unable to make new viruses in the cells that received the interferon message |
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Term
| The inflammatory response makes |
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Definition
| the aggressive cellular and chemical counterattacks more effective |
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Term
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Definition
| white blood cells that are critical to the specific immune response |
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Term
| T cell lymphocytes originate in the ? but migrate to the ? for maturation |
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Definition
| bone marrow; thymus gland |
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Term
T cell lymphocytes
recognize microorganisms and viruses by the .... |
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Definition
| chemical markers, or antigens, on their surfaces |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| B cell lymphocytes complete their maturation in the ? and, when an antigen is encountered, they produce ? |
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Definition
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Term
| the antibodies made by b cell lymphocytes coat the ? and mark the cell bearing that antigen for destruction |
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Definition
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Term
| There are four main kinds of T cells, they are... |
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Definition
| helper T cells (TH), memory T cells, cytotoxic T cells (TC), and suppressor T cells |
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Term
| Both B and T cells produce |
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Definition
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Term
| memory cells provide the body with the ability to recall ? and to mount ? |
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Definition
| a previous exposure to an antigen ; an attack against that antigen very quickly |
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Term
| ? initiate the immune response |
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Definition
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Term
| Macrophages inspect the surfaces of ? |
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Definition
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Term
| every cell in the body carries special marker proteins on its surface called... |
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Definition
| major histocompatibility proteins, or MHC proteins |
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Term
| MHC proteins serve as “self” markers that enable the individual’s immune system to .... |
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Definition
| distinguish its cells from foreign cells |
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Term
| When a foreign particle infects the body, it is ... |
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Definition
| taken in by cells and partially digested |
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Term
(Initiating Immune Response) within the cells, the antigens are processed and moved to the ?.
cells that perform this function are called ? cells and are usually macrophages |
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Definition
| surface of the plasma membrane; antigen-presenting |
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Term
| When a foreign particle infects the body, it is... |
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Definition
| taken in by cells and partially digested |
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Term
| within the cells, the antigens are processed and moved to the surface of the plasma membrane. cells that perform this function are called ? and are usually ? |
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Definition
| antigen-presenting cells; macrophages |
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Term
| Macrophages that encounter a pathogen, identified as anything which lacks the proper MHC protein, respond by ? which is ? |
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Definition
| secreting a chemical alarm signal; interleukin-1 |
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Term
| What does interleukin-1 stimulate? |
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Definition
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Term
| the helper T cells activate two lines of immune system defense, they are ... |
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Definition
| cellular response; humoral response |
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Term
| cellular response carried out by ? cells |
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Definition
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Term
| humoral response carried out by ? cells |
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Definition
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Term
When macrophages process the foreign antigens and trigger the cellular immune response
the activated ? that are bound to an antigen-presenting cell secrete ? |
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Definition
| helper T cells; interleukin-2 |
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Term
| interleukin-2 stimulates the proliferation of |
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Definition
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Term
| cytotoxic T cells recognize and destroy infected ? |
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Definition
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Term
| Any cytotoxic T cell whose receptor fits the particular ? present in the body begins to multiply rapidly |
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Definition
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Term
| the cytotoxic T cells kill by... |
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Definition
| puncturing a hole in the plasma membrane of the infected cell |
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Term
| Following an infection, some of the activated T cells give rise to ? that remain in the body, ready to mount an attack quickly if the antigen is encountered again |
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Definition
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Term
| B cells also respond to helper T cells activated by ? |
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Definition
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Term
| B cells do not attack infected cells, rather, they... |
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Definition
| mark the pathogen for destruction |
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Term
| early in the ?, the markers placed by B cells alert complement proteins to attack the cells carrying them |
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Definition
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Term
| The release of interleukin-2 by the helper T cells stimulates the |
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Definition
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Term
| the B cells divided to produce |
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Definition
| plasma cells; memory cells |
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Term
| the B cells divided to produce plasma cells that serve as... |
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Definition
| short-lived antibody factories |
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Term
| Antibodies are proteins in a class called... |
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Definition
| immunoglobulins (abbreviated Ig) |
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Term
| there are ? different immunoglobulin subclasses |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| agglutination (clumping) reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| major form in the blood plasma |
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Term
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Definition
| antigen receptors on the B cell |
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Term
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Definition
| form of antibody in external secretions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| The ? that are derived from B cells produce lots of the same antibody that was able to bind to the antigen |
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Definition
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Term
| ? circulate through the blood and lymph for long periods of time (sometimes the entire lifetime) |
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Definition
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Term
| it is estimated that human B cells can make between |
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Definition
| 106 and 109 different antibodies |
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Term
| B cells can make so many different antibodies because |
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Definition
| the immune receptor genes do not exist as single sequences of nucleotides **instead, they are assembled by stitching together three or four DNA segments that code for different parts of the receptor molecule |
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Term
| an antibody is produced by a composite gene in a process called |
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Definition
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Term
| Two additional processes generate even more sequences to code for antibodies, they are |
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Definition
| DNA sequences may be joined together off-register, which shifts the reading frame; random mistakes occur during successive DNA replications |
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Term
| The receptors on T cells are just as diverse and are also subject to |
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Definition
| somatic rearrangement and mutations |
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Term
| The first time a pathogen invades a body, there are only a few ? or ? that may recognize the antigens |
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Definition
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Term
| binding of the antigen to its receptor on the lymphocyte surface stimulates ? and produces a ?. This process is called ? |
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Definition
| cell division; clone; clonal selection |
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Term
| the result of clonal selection is the ?, which is slow to develop and produces both plasma and memory cells |
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Definition
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Term
| As a result of the first infection, a large clone of lymphocytes that can recognize a pathogen remains. The secondary immune response is a more effective response when the ? |
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Definition
| pathogen is encountered again |
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Term
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Definition
| the introduction of a dead or disabled pathogen into a body |
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Term
| How do vaccinations work? |
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Definition
| The vaccination triggers an immune response against the pathogen, without an infection occurring |
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