1. regulating plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and other ions by controlling the quantities lost in the urine
2. regulating blood volume and blood pressure
3. contributing to stabilization of blood pH
4. conserving valuable nutrients by preventing their excretion in the urine
5. eliminating organic waste products, especially nitrogenous wastes such as urea and uric acid, toxic substances, and drigs
6. assisting the liver in detoxifying poisons and deaminating amino acids so that other tissues can break them down

1. the overlying peritoneum
2. contact with adjacent visceral organs
3. supporting connective tissues

the outer layer of the kidney in contact with the capsule

(reddish-brown and granular)

contains a renal pyramid, the overlying area of renal cortex, and adjacent tissues of the renal columns

[image]

filtration station of the nephron! Has two parts

1. glomerulus
2. bowman's capsule

• done through the renal tubules
• transport of molecules from the ultrafiltrate is reabsorbed

1. proximal convoluted tubule
2. loop of henle
1. descending limb of loop
2. ascending limb of loop
3. distal convoluted tubule

• done through the renal tubules
• molecules from the blood into the urine
• secrete about 2 liters of urine per day
• all of these tubes are tightly controlled by hormones for homeostasis

RARE

stones in the nasal passage

• low fluid intake
• high dietary intake of animal protein
• sodium, sugars, fructose
• apple juice, cola drinks

lithotripsy

(break down of stones with high powered waves)

• muscular tubes that extend inferiorly from the kidneys before reaching the bladder
• pass through the bladder at an oblique angle through a slit

a hollow muscular organ that functions as a temporary storage reservoir for urine

(holds about a liter)

the posterior, inferior, and anterior surfaces of the bladder lie outside the peritoneal cavity

extends from the neck of urinary bladder to the exterior

(the female and male urethrae differ in length and function

• urine reaches the urinary bladder by the peristaltic contraction of the ureters
• stretch receptors in the wall of the urinary bladder are stimulated as it fills with urine
• afferent fibers in the pelvic nerves carry the impulses generated to the sacral spinal cord
• this facilitates parasympatheric motor neurons in the sacral spinal cord which stimulates contraction of the urinary bladder which stimulates interneurons that relay sensatuibs to the cerebral cortex
• the urge to urinate first develops when the urinary bladder contains approx 200 mL of urine
• voluntary urination involves conscious relaxation of the external sphincter and subconcious facilitation of the micturition reflex
• when the external urethral sphincter relaxes, feedback through the autonomic nervous system relaxes the internal urethral sphincter
• in the absence of voluntary relaxation of the external urethral sphincter, reflexive relaxation of both sphincters will eventually occur as the urinary bladder nears compacity

• less efficient at filtering
• less reabsorption of water and sodium ions occurs as a result, urination becomes more frequent, and daily fluid requirements increase
• sphincter muscles lose muscle tone and become less effective at voluntarily retaining urine
• this loss of tone leads to incontinence
• bladder musculature weakens