comprised of base pairs: 

-adenine, thymine

-guanine, cytosine 

sugar and phosphates 

combination of egg and sperm to form 23 pairs of chormosomes 

-22 autosomes

-1 sex chormosome 

mitosis- standard process; 46 chromosomes/cell 

meiosis- reduction division; unique to sperm and ova; 23 chromosomes/cell 

-divided from a somatic cell

-2 daughter cells 

-all daughter cells have 46 chromsomes 

5 phases 

meiosis 

-divided from a reproductive cell 

-4 daughter cells 

-all daughter cells ahve 23 chromosomes 

-9 phases 

-ways for cell to divide

-same number of chromosome as the original cell 

-both have the basic 5 phases 

small and carries only a few genes 

trisomies= 3 copies of a specific autosome

-trisomy 21=down's syndrome, smaller brains, mental retardation 

-klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) 

 -XYY

-turner's syndrome 

-XXX

autosomal disorders- caused by genes located on chromosomes other than sex chromosomes

~phenylketonuria (PKU) 

~sickle-cell disease 

~tay-sachs disease 

~cystic fibrosis 

recessive and located only on the X chromosome 

-red-green colorblindess

-hemophilia

-duchenne's muscular dystrophy 

many genes influence phenotype (ex. 3 genes) 

e.g., skin color 

affected by genes and environment 

example: height (environment+genes), cancer, diabetes 

serum screening- AFP 

ultrasound sonography 

chorionic villus sampling- week 9 to 12 

amnicentesis-usually after week 15 

more like adoptive parents= environment (nurture) 

more like biological parents= genetics (nature)

monozygotic (identical) vs. dyzygotic (fraternal) twins 

MZ very much like DZ- environment (nuture) 

MZ very different from DZ- genetics (nature) 

1. menstruation (day 1-5)

2. Follicular phase (days 5-14)

3. Luteal phase (days 14-28) 

-artifical insemination- sperm placed directly in vagina 

-in vitro fertilization (IVF)- egg fertilized in lab and implanted into fallopian tubes 

-donor IVF- use donor egg

-surrogate mother 

-germinal 

-embryonic 

-fetal stage 

germinal stage 

(conception to 2 weeks) 

-cells division, implantation of blastocyst 

-cells inside will become the embryo's body 

embroyonic stage 

(2 weeks to 8 weeks)

-foundations of body's major organs and neural tube form 

-3 layers of cells: 

ectoderm 

endoderm-inner layer

mesoderm-middle layer

sex differentiation:

-weeks 5-6 genital organs develop 

-week 7 differentiation begins; y chrom. causes testes to defferentiate & secrete androgens; absence casues ovary dev. 

testosterone-> wolffian duct development

mullerian inhibiting substance-> prevents female duct

fetal stage

(8 weeks to birth)

-refines brains and other organs, neurons multiply 

-end of 3rd month, fetus can move 

-marked growth 

3 trimesters: 

first trimester 

second trimester

third trimester 

first trimester 

(1-13 weeks)

-zygote implants 

-cycle stops

-cervix thickens & secretes mucus to protect embryo 

-symptoms= breast tenderness, nausea, fatigue 

-miscarriage= 15% to 1/3 of pregnancies 

second trimester

(14-27 weeks)

-risk of miscarriage decreases 

-uterus expands, appetite increases, energy returns 

-begin to "show" 

-quickening=fetal movement (week 16-18)

-week 16-20 sex can easily be determined on ultrasound (book says 9-12 wk)

-hair develops; can suck thumb, hiccup

-eyes open/shut, can perceive light, sound

-age of viability 22-25 wks 

third trimester 

(28 weeks to birth) 

-fetus has regular rest and active periods

-fetal organs continue to mature 

-weight gain and abdominal enlargement 

-colostrum release from breasts 

-braxton-hicks contractions 

-wk 36 fetus engages (head down position) 

-environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that can produce a birth defect 

-critical period- specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequence/impact 

ex. thalidomide 

maternal diseases

substance use

environmental toxins

klinefelter's syndrome (XXY)

-conception and prenatal 

-infancy

-early childhood

-middle childhood

-adolescence 

-biological 

-cognitive

-social 

-emotional

-behavioral 

-qualitative changes

-quantitative changes 

-changes in type or kind

-development 

-changes in amount

-growth 

field of study that tries to understand that processes that goven the apperance and growth of children's 

-biological structures 

-psychological traits

-behavior

-understanding 

-ways of adapting to demands of life 

gain insight into:

-human nature

-origins of adult behavior 

-origins of differences 

*sex

*gender roles

*culture 

-origins 

-prevention and treatment of developmental problems 

optimize conditions of development 

-children viewed as innately evil 

-age 7 is the "age of reason" 

-children were treated as miniature adults 

-nuclear family

-childhood is recognized as a time period of life 

20th century 

-laws to protect child rights in labor, education, neglect 

-juvenile courts 

Charles Darwin 

(1809-1882)

-theory of evolution 

-use of baby biography 

G. Stanley Hall 

(1844-1924)

-child development as an academic discipline

-questionnaire methodology with children  

Alfred Binet

(1857-1911)

-behaviorism-learning 

-nurture 

-biological maturation 

-nature 

-describe

-explain

-predict

-influence events being studied 

-related sets of statements about events

-include descriptive terms and concepts 

-based on certain assumptions

-allow explanations and predictions

-wide range of applicability

-influence events 

-view children (and adults) involed in conflict:

*internal basic drives conflict w/external limits 

*internalize 'external' demands and rules 

*conflict then occurs between these opposing inner forces 

-freud's theory of psychosexual development 

-erikson's theory of psychosocial development 

-stage theories

*distinct periods of development 

-sigmund freud (1856-1939)

-levels of awareness

-parts of personality 

-quantity of gratification at each stage 

-conscious level 

-unconscious level 

-Id 

-ego

-superego 

-oral 

-anal

-phallic 

-latency

-genital 

-sucking & biting 

-early weaning or breast-fed too long

-fixation: nail-biting, smoking, "biting wit"

-control & elimination of waste

-excessively strict or permissive toilet training 

-fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness) 

-parent-child conflict over masturbation

-view same-sex parent as rival 

-begins at adolescene

-desirre sexual gratification through intercorse w/member of other sex

-interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development 

-comprehensive theory of childhood

-influenced parents, child-care workers and educators 

-based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled 

-little empirical data

-placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives

-cant study the unconcious 

-modified and expanded freud's theory

-successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity 

-differences from psychosexual development 

*focuses on development of self-identity 

*includes conscious and purposeful acts in development 

*extends stages to 8; throughout adulthood 

-trust vs. mistrust 

-autonomy vs. shame and doubt

-initiative vs. guilt 

-idustry vs. inferiority 

-identity vs. role diffusion 

-intimacy vs. isolation 

-generativity vs. stagnation 

-ego inergrity vs. despair 

-highly appealing 

*emphasizes choice and minimizes urges

*portrays people as prosocial and helpful 

-some empirical support

-still used in some areas

-classical conditioning 

-operant conditiong 

-observational learning 

-the mind active 

-John B. Watson

*only addresses observable behavior 

*behaviors you can see 

-classical conditioning 

-B.F. skinner

-operant conditioning 

-simple learning

*neutral stimulus repeatedly paired w/second simulus 

*elicits the response usually brought by the second stimulus 

example: bell and pad method to eliminate bed-wetting 

-learn to do something becasue of its effects

-B.F. skinner-reinforcement 

*any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow

-positive reinforcers

-negative reinforcers 

-aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow 

-effective in emergencies, but less preferable in general 

*does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behavior 

*tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain conditions 

*punished children may withdraw from the situaiton 

*can create anger and hostility 

*may generalize too far 

*may be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress

-more preferable to reward children for desirable behavior 

-shaping 

-socialization of children 

shaping 

-teaching complex behaviors

-reinforcing small steps toward the behavioral goal 

-parent and child

-child and child

-teacher and child

*time out 

-albert bandura 

-learning alters child's mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment 

-child is an active learner 

-intentional observation of models for imitation 

-acquire basic "know-how" though observational learning

-latent learning 

-contributions 

-criticisms

-meets the goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and influencing aspects of children's behavior 

-principles are abundant in education and clinical application 

-unclear if learning is only mechanical 

-underestimates role of biological-maturation factors 

-focuses on children's mental processes

*how children perceive and mentally represent the world 

-Jean Piaget 

-Information-processing theory 

Jean Piaget 

(1896-1980)

-working with binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interestd in children's wrong answers 

-piaget's work was not widely read until mid 1950's 

*difficult to understand

*reflected biological-cognitive perspective while behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular 

-piaget's view of children as budding scientits 

piaget's basic concepts 

-scheme

-adaptation

-assimilation 

-accommodation 

-equilibration 

-four major stages:

*sensorimotor

*preoperational 

*concrete operational 

*formal operational 

-stages are universal 

-development is based on children's interations with their environment's 

-influential in many educational settings 

-criticisms 

-contributions 

-piaget may have underestimated children's abilites by age 

-cognitive growth may be more gradual than piaget's distinct stages 

-different view of children from psychoanalytic and behaviorist 

-foundation for research 

-influenced by the concepts of computer science 

-consider "limitations" of child

-applications in education

-short-term memory

-ability to multi-task

-physical development 

*gains in height and weight

*development of nervous system 

*developments connected w/hormones, heredity

-ethology 

-concern w/instinctive behavior patterns 

*influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, & Niko Tinbergen 

-pre-wired---instinctive behavior patterns

*fixed action patterns (FAPs)

*influence on prenatal hormones 

-Lorenz's work on attachment during the first year 

*imprinting 

-assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning 

-suggestion that instincts play a role in human behavior 

-explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live 

-Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

*focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional) 

-microsystem

-mesosystem

-exosystem 

-macrosystem 

-chronosystem