1) Men are continually in competition for honor and dignity

2) The common good of men differs from the private good

3) Men believe, having the use of reason, that they can do better at ruling

than the current government, and strive to improve it.

4) Men have the art of words, which can be used to augment or diminish

the apparent greatness of good and evil, discontenting men and

troubling them

5) Men, as opposed to irrational creatures, can distinguish between

injury and damage, and when they are at ease are the most

troublesome, because that is when they love to show their wisdom

and control

6) Men’s agreement to enter the commonwealth is by covenant only, and

not natural like other irrational creatures, thus in order to make their

agreement lasting forever, they need a common power to keep them

in awe.

1) Where the public and private interested are closest, there the public

interest is most advanced. In a Monarchy the public and private

interest are one in the same, so a monarchy is the better

2) The monarch can receive counsel from anyone any time he wants,

giving him the best counsel, whereas an assembly can only receive

counsel from those already appointed, not giving them the best

counselors (for they are more versed in acquiring wealth instead of

the subject at hand)

3) The resolutions of the monarch have no inconsistency except for that

of human nature, but an assembly has inconsistency arising from its

number alone.

4) A monarch cannot disagree with himself out of envy or interest, but an

assembly may

5) While there is an inconvenience that one subject of the sovereign

power may be deprived of all he has because the power favors one

over the other, A monarch has few favorites whereas assemblies have

many, so a monarchy is preferable to assemblies.

1) A right understanding of that principal law of nature called equity.

2) A contempt of unnecessary riches and preferment’s

3) To be able to in judgment divest themselves of all fear, anger, hatred,

love, and compassion.

4) Patience to hear; diligent attention in hearing; and memory to retain,

digest and apply what he has heard

A state of war is incurred when one man tries to put another under his

absolute power. A state of war is a state of enmity and destruction where the

rule is only of force and violence, not of common law of reason. This means

those in a state of war may be treated as beasts of prey. When a thief tries to

take something from another, they are trying to put the other person in their

power, and incur a state of war upon themselves, since there is no common

power on earth to appeal to for relieve from the aggressor. By the right of

war, then, the person being stolen from has all right the kill the aggressor, in

this case a thief.

10. Man has property in his own person, and also what he mixes his labor with.

This is because in a state of nature where everything is held in common,

when a man mixes his own person, or his labor, which he alone has property

over, he is joining his labor with something, which he then has a right to.

This beginning of property, by mixing our labor into it, is said by Locke

to be a law of nature. Locke also says that while God gave the earth to us

in common, it was not his intent to leave it in common and uncultivated,

because he gave it to us for out benefit, and leaving it uncultivated would not

be to our benefit. so one could say that the Law of Nature of the beginning of

property (by joining our labor with something previously held in common

to make it our own) was God’s intent, perhaps given by God, to reap benefit

from the earth.

Paternal power charges the parents with the nourishment and education

of their children. Along with this comes the power to chastisement,

however, Paternal power does not give the father any sovereign power

of commanding. He has no dominion over his son’s property or actions.

Political powers, however, are defined by having the sovereign power, and

have dominion over the actions of those in the body politic. Locke says that

we can see the stark difference in the aims and foundations of paternal and

political power, because if they were one and the same, and the paternal

power was in the prince, then the subject could have no paternal power. As it

is, however, the prince has just as much power over his children as a subject

has over his.

Since the Absolute Monarch holds the legislate power and executive he becomes law.

Subjects cannot appeal in controversies. He is unrestrained by any law outside himself

and so is able to transgress the rights of subjects at “ will and order”. Removing the

common judge which decides controversy puts men back in the state of nature with all its

accompanying ills, with the further inconvenience that you have no means of preserving

and defending your rights. The end of civil society is to “remedy” the ills of the state

of nature. Absolute Monarchy is inconsistent with civil society in that it allows those

problems that civil government professes to alleviate to persist.

Name and Define the three kinds of powers found in every commonwealth according to

Locke. (pg. 364-365)

The three powers found in every commonwealth are legislative, executive, and

federative. Legislative Power by right directs how the force of the commonwealth

(executive) is to be used by making laws. The Executive Power executes the established

laws and remains in force, which is to say he executes the laws by force and perpetually.

It is also a strictly domestic power, which then illuminates why there is another power

found in every government. The Federative power consists in the ability to “make war

and peace, leagues and alliances” and transactions of other sorts with people(s) foreign to

the commonwealth.

When does Locke believe that subjects should appeal to Heaven against their

government? (pg. 379-380)

He reserves this appeal as a last resort. He also believes that it should be used in

occasions of “sufficient moment” whenever the subjects are deprived of right, as in the

example of the Absolute Monarch. Deprived of the right to appeal to a common judge

on earth Locke believes it is just to appeal to Heaven. However he tempers this attitude,

dispels the myth that this belief would “lay the perpetual foundation for Disorder”, and

provides commonsense in the interest of the lone subjects by saying this appeal must

concern inconveniences that the majority feel, are weary of, and find it necessary to

amend. When all these are realities of the controversy between government and subjects,

then Locke believes subjects should appeal to heaven.

All persons should respect the religious worship of others because they are “not

prejudicial to other men’s right”. Secondly they do not “break the public peace of

societies”.

“No man can be a Christian without charity and without that faith which works, not

by force, but by love.” Because love and charity are consistent with toleration Locke says, “ nobody, surely, will ever believe that such a carriage [being intolerant] can

proceed from charity, love” .

List which groups do not need to be tolerated, according to Locke, and explain why. (pg.

19-20)

1 . “ These, therefore, and the like, who attribute unto the faithful, religious, and

orthodox, that is, in plain terms, unto themselves, any peculiar privilege or power

above other mortals, in civil concernments;” Another Prince (on earth religions)

2 . “ who upon pretence of religion do challenge any manner of authority over such as

are not associated with them in their ecclesiastical communion, I say these have

no right to be tolerated by the magistrate;”

3 . “ as neither those that will not own and teach the duty of tolerating all men in

matters of mere religion.”

For what do all these and the like doctrines signify, but that they may and are ready upon any occasion to seize the Government and possess themselves of the estates and fortunes of their fellow subjects; and that they only ask leave to be tolerated by the magistrate so long until they find themselves strong enough to effect it?

How does Rousseau think that he has “almost demonstrated [the] impossibility that Languages could have arisen and been established by purely human means” in the Second Discourse? 

Man in the state of Nature does not have nor need relations with one another, so by purely human, that is, natural, means, Man has no need for language and would not create it. “if Men needed speech in order to learn how to think, they needed even more to know how to think in order to find the art of speech.” The concept of purely abstract ideas, he uses trees as an example, and the difficulty in discovering that most simple part of language—physical nouns—and how much more unlikely abstractions would have been without having a Society to cause them to become necessary (p 147-149).

Amor-propre, “self love,” a sort of self-love that arises from the opinions of others and from comparing oneself to others, and is a product of socialization.

Amor de soi meme is the natural self-regard that one has by being a living being and does not rely on others.

This is the epoch where Man begins to establish relations amongst each other, and the idea of consideration had taken shape in their mind, everyone  claimed a right to it.”  Where everyone is sole judge and avenger of offenses he had received, “occupying a just mean between the indolence of the primitive state and the petulant activity of our amour propre” 

The project: To gather our forces into a supreme power that might govern us according to wise Laws, protect and defend all the members of the association, repulse common enemies, and preserve us in everlasting concord. Essentially, get the poor to willingly enslave themselves to the rich.

The necessity: The possessions and thus, power, of the rich comes from their right taken by force to control more than that which they need to survive. If these could have been acquired by force, then anyone stronger has the right to take THEIR things by force, thus they are never secure. They need security.

Natural inequality – That which arises naturally; smarter, stronger, faster, et c. Are not a product of society but can influence one's Political standing by cleverness, et c.

Moral or Political inequality – arises from convention and society, and is a product of man’s consent. Completely artificial, social.

     1) Natural freedom. Man is born free (41) as a consequence of his nature as a rational being prone to self-preservation. Includes “unlimited right to everything that tempts him and he can reach” (54)

2) Civil freedom. Includes property, exercised and developed faculties, enlarged ideas, and sentiments enobled… introduces morality (53).

3) Moral freedom. Being a master over the passions instead of a slave to them (54).

1) Political Law, also called Fundamental Law. Regulates the relation of

the whole body with itself, the interactions of the Sovereign with the State. Determines form of government- i.e, a constitution. (80)

2) Civil Law. Regulates relations between individual members of the state and

the state as a whole. People should independent from each other and “excessibly dependent on the City” and that is what civil law creates and regulates (80).

3) Criminal Law. Regulates disobedience and penalties (80).

4) Cultural Law (my term)—comprised of “morals, customs, and above all

opinion” engraved in the hearts of the Citizens.

24. Explain the three main forms of government found in Book III of The Social Contract and name the territory size, climate, and level of wealth to which each is best suited.

1) Democracy-

A. small states (so the people can easily assemble)

B. not barren, but limited excess of production. Not tropical, but not too cold to prevent people from meeting in the forum.

C. limited wealth (“limited to no luxury” to enable “simplicity of morals” (91))

Due to taxes – “democracy (is suitable for) small and poor States” (101)

2) Aristocracy-

A. medium sized states (easier to assemble fewer men, not so

large individual aristocrats begin to seek independence in their areas of influence (90, 95))

B. Not specifically mentioned; however, climate=opulence of nation, aristocracy=moderate opulence, climate=moderate.

C. “a certain inequality of fortune…primarily so that in general the

administration of the public business by entrusted to those who can best devote all their time to it” (94)

Due to taxes- “Aristocracy to states moderate in wealth as well as size” (101)

3) Monarchy-

A. large states (most efficient form of gov’t; however, hard for

one man to competently rule a state, hard to find a good man, succession issues)

B. Warm climates; excess produce for Prince to consume, warm countries don’t have to try to keep people there

C. Due to tax burden; “Monarchy is suited only to opulent nations” (101)

25. Explain Servius’ three methods of dividing Roman citizens as described in Book IV, Chapter IV of The Social Contract.

1) Divided by races into tribes--- turns into divisions based on city districts, subdivided into Curia (turns into separate division later; (130)) and Decurions, Urban and Rural tribes (rural were held in higher regard) (127)

2) Military divisions--- Centuries were drawn from each tribe; Horsemen were separated from the people (127, 128)

3) Class divisions--- “he distributed the whole roman people into six classes,

which he distinguished neither by district nor by persons, but by goods” (130) rich in first, poor in sixth.

26. Explain the difference between the public and private use of reason, according to Kant’s “What is Enlightenment?”

Private—“that use which one makes of his reason in a certain civil post or office which is entrusted to him” (60)

-“here one is certainly not allowed to argue; rather, one must obey” (60)

Public—“that use which anyone makes of it as a scholar before the entire public of the reading world”

-one must “consider himself …as a member of the entire commonwealth” (60)

“public use of reason must at all times be free, and it alone can bring about

enlightenment among men; the private use of reason, however, may often be

very narrowly restricted without progress of enlightenment being particularly

hindered” (59-60).