Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Asking for something really big or burdensome first, and then asking for something smaller, after the person declines, generally proves more successful for elicting compliance.
This is a principle of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Tupperware's use of home parties to sell Tupperware is an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Informing high school students about the high rates of suicide is a misapplication of the principle of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Showing potential donors a list of neighbors who have contributed previously to a charity is an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Using the actor Robert Young, who played a much respected doctor on a long-running TV series, to promote the health benefits of decaffinated coffee is an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Limited time only offers are an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
The sending out of personalized address labels with a request for a donation is an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Rephrasing 'Please call if you change your plans' to 'Will you please call if you change your plans' is an example of: |
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Definition
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
According to the author, the best way to protect yourself from being manipulated by these techniques is to... |
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Definition
| understand and know about them |
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Term
The Science of Persuasion:
Cultural differences played a role in a recent study of Citibank employees in the US, Germany, China, and Spain. Match the tendencies that dominated when granting a request to the nationalities. |
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Definition
Spain: Liking/Friendship
US: Reciprocity
China: Authority
Germany: Consistency |
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Term
Creating False Memories:
People use more words to describe false memories over true memories. True or False |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
In Hyman et al.'s study, parents supplied true memories about an event their child experiences. Tested as adults, the subjects recalled more __________________ with repeated interviewing. |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
Memories are more easily modified soon after they are experienced. True or false? |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
Subjects asked to imagine an event or episode that did not occer are more likely to form a false memory of the event. This phenomenon is referred to as: |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
The phenomenon may be caused by______________ which occurs when the source of a memory and its contents are confused. |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
The reason adults cannot remember any episodes from the first year of life is that the ___________________, a part of the brain involved in memory is not sufficiently mature. |
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Definition
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Term
Creating False Memories:
_____________________ is a procedure used by Spanos and collegues to implant memories of infancy. In this technique, subjects are hypnotized and age regressed to the day after birth and are then asked what they remember. |
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Definition
| Guided mneumonic restructuring |
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Term
Creating False Memories:
Creation of false memories occurs most easily when these 3 external factors are present: |
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Definition
1. social demands/pressure to remember
2. told to imagine
3. encouraged not to be concerned if the memory happened or not |
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Term
Freud Returns:
In Freud's view, mental illness results when _________________ fails. |
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Definition
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Term
Freud Returns:
Cognitive neuroscientists delineate different memory systems that process memories _________ and __________ as stand-ins for the Freudian terms conscious and unconscious processes. |
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Definition
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Term
Freud Returns:
LeDoux's found a pathway connecting perceptual information with primitive brain structures important for generating fear responses. This pathway bypasses the ____________ which generates conscious memories. |
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Definition
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Term
Freud Returns:
The pathway connecting perceptual information with primitive brain structures may explain: |
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Definition
| conscious feelings that seem irrational |
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Term
Freud Returns:
According to this author, why does infantile amnesia not mean that early experiences do not affect us in ways that fundamentally shape our future personality and mental health? |
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Definition
| early experiences influence the pattern of brain connections in way that fundamentally shape our future personality and mental health. (unconscious processes) |
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Term
Freud Returns:
According to this author, what is the cause of infantile amnesia? |
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Definition
| The Hippocampus, which is essential for forming conscious memories has not been formed in the first two years of life. |
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Term
Freud Returns:
What mechanism from studies of split brain patients does Solms consider as an explanation for the repression/rationalization offered by anosognosic patients in response to the consequences of their unacknowledged impairments? |
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Definition
| mechanisms of defense (left hemisphere interpreter) |
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Term
Freud Returns:
Damage to the frontal limbic regions of the brain causes confabulations. It follows that frontal limbic regions may be involved in what cognitive function? |
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Definition
| staying in touch with reality |
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Term
Freud Returns:
What 4 drive systems have neuroscientists proposed based on leison studies? |
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Definition
seeking/reward
anger/rage
fear/anxiety
panic |
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Term
Freud Returns:
The relationship between neurochemistry and the reward system has been demonstrated most convincingly in studying: |
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Definition
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Term
| Steps to processing memory |
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Definition
| encoding, storage, retrieval, |
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Term
| Factors that effect encoding |
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Definition
| elaboration,mneumonic devices, similarity/distinctiveness, expertise and meaningfulness |
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Term
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Definition
(encoding)
depth of processing the material. Deep versus surface. The degree to which you interact with the material is directly related to how much you remember |
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Term
| PET study on depth of processing (Kapur) |
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Definition
| scans during a deep vs. shallow encoding task: left inferior prefrontal cortex activates for deep encoding but not for shallow, suggestion of hippocampus for novelty processing and for consolidation |
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Term
| what part of the brain is activated during deep encoding but not shallow? |
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Definition
| left inferior prefrontal cortex |
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Term
| what brain structure is implicated in novelty processing and for consolidation? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
(encoding method)
method of loci, image associations: mnemonist, synesthesia |
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Term
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Definition
| studied the mind of a mnemonist who had an extrodinary memory and a sensory encoding for everything |
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Term
| similarity/distinctiveness |
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Definition
(encoding method)
categorically arranged lists make it easier to recall more words in that list. distinctive items on a list are also easier to recall |
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Term
| expertise and meaningfulness |
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Definition
(encoding method)
real versus random configuration, other race effect for recognizing faces |
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Term
| other race effect for recognizing faces |
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Definition
| it is easier to recognize faces of your own race than other races |
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Term
| how do short term memories get turned into long term memories |
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Definition
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Term
| where are cognitive memories consolidated? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where are emotional memories consolidated? |
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Definition
| Amygdala: in the limbic system near the Hippocampus |
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Term
| long term memories in regards to forgetting |
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Definition
| long term memories are resistant to forgetting |
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Term
| HM case study regarding consolidation |
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Definition
| HM had an accident at age nine that resulted in Epilepsy, at age 27 his doctor surgically did bilateral damage to the Hippocampus and mediotemporal lobes which resulted in total impairment of consolidation. |
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Term
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Definition
| found that there are two types of memory, declarative and non-declarative. HM repeated a task everyday and gradually performed better even though he didnt remember ever doing it each day. This proved that his non-declarative memory was still intact. |
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Term
| REM sleep and consolidation |
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Definition
| It has long been hypothesized that consolidation occurs during REM sleep although this is difficult to prove. |
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Term
| Strongest evidence that consolidation occurs during REM sleep |
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Definition
| Wilson and McNaughton: rats were taught to go through a maze. experimenters kept track of brain activity with electrodes. The pattern of activity during REM sleep was similar to the activity shown during the learning. Rats replay memories in their sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| thought to be in the frontal cortex because of case studies in neuropsychology, neuroimaging, and electrophysiology in primates. The organization of this is still in dispute |
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Term
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Definition
| Schacter theorized that episodic memories are stored close to where they are perceived. |
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Term
| According to Schacter, where are visual memories stored? |
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Definition
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Term
| According to Schacter where are tactile and motor memories stored? |
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Definition
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Term
| According to Schacter where are auditory memories stored |
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Definition
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Term
| According to Schacter, where are olfactory memories stored? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is semantic/procedural memory stored? |
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Definition
| probably same as for episodic memories, stored close to where it is encoded |
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Term
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Definition
| Damasio: there is no single inprint of past experience, memories consist of sensory fragments that are bound together by association. Remembering is a process by which we construct the memory by binding together and reactivating the sensory fragments. Convergence zones start the reactivation |
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Term
| Where did Damasio beleive convergence zones to be? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| consists of recognition and recall |
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Term
| recognition in retrieving memories |
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Definition
| knowing that something is correct (Harrisburg is the capital of Virginia) or knowing that something is familiar (faces, music, smells) |
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Term
| recall in retrieving memories |
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Definition
| interrogating memory to retrieve a fact (What is the capital of Pennsylvania) |
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Term
| Which is more difficult: recall or recognition? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why is it important that people know what they don't know? |
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Definition
| unlike computers that have to search a database before deciding whether it contains that information or not, people are able to know quickly that they don't know the answer to a question. |
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Term
| What does the fact that people know what they don't know imply? |
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Definition
| memory retreival is not a massive serial search through a lot of data. |
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Term
| What keys or cues help people know if they know something? |
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Definition
| access in parallel, context narrows search, context speeds activation, more cues speeds up the search |
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Term
| mechanistic parallel access |
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Definition
| more keys make it faster to retrieve knowledge, memory retrival is a parallel process |
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Term
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Definition
| how what we know about what we know determines the strategy for retrieving |
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Term
| recall dichotomy (Moscovitch) |
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Definition
| two types, associative: memory sparked by environment where the hippocampus and meiotemporal areas are thought to be important and effortful: interrogate your memory where right pre-frontal lobe is important |
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Term
| Two types of successful recognition |
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Definition
| hits, and correct rejection |
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Term
| two types of unsuccessful recognition |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| something happened and you remember it |
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Term
| false alarms in recognition |
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Definition
| you remember something that did not happen |
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Term
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Definition
| something happened but you did not remember it |
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Term
| correct rejection in recognition |
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Definition
| you do not remember something that did not happen |
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Term
| What do most psychologists believe about forgetting? |
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Definition
| That everything is learned permanently |
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Term
| Loftus and Loftus on forgetting |
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Definition
| believed that when you fail to retrieve something it is because you havent conjured up the right cues yet |
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Term
|
Definition
| during temporal lobe stimulation people brought back autobiographical memories thought to be lost |
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Term
| According to Luria, why can forgetting be a good thing? |
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Definition
| People who can't forget have a cluttered mind, are bombarded with extraneous material, have a difficult time giving attention to only important information |
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Term
| imperfections of memory (Rodieger and McDermott) |
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Definition
| given a list of words that pertained to sweet things such as candy or sugar, then asked if sweet was on the list and 40% said yes. Source confustion error |
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Term
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Definition
| something is recognized familiar, context or source of the memory confused |
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Term
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Definition
misinformation: confuse the incident with the interview
imagination inflation: confuse the incident with imagination of it
filling in the gaps: confuse the incident with the script |
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Term
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Definition
| tagged with context, you actually remember doing something |
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Term
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Definition
| unconscious memory, i just know i locked the door this morning |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychologist that was interviewed on TV, a raped woman claimed that he was the rapist, gave his description, and identified him in a line-up, however he was on TV at the time of the rape. She had watched the program right before she was raped. her consolidation ability was messed up because of the traumatic event. |
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Term
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Definition
| source confusion error: imagination, disregard for reality, confabulation |
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Term
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Definition
| make up, increase memory by adding and embellishing |
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Term
| Filling in the Gaps (Shank and Abelson) |
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Definition
| script based memory, we only explicitly remember things that diverge from the script, things that don't follow our expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| a tool for probing inplicit memory: it is easier to recognize a word that you were exposed to recently |
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Term
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Definition
| children were asked to think about real and nonreal events that occured to the children. After 10 weeks, 50% of the children agreed that at least one of the nonreal events had occured. |
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Term
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Definition
| when a child believes that a nonreal event has occured, it is difficult for trained professionals to know if the story had occured or not (although all the professionals believed they could tell) |
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Term
| children and misleading info study |
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Definition
| A man visited a preschool class for two minutes. Later the children were asked misleading questions at four interviews. The last interview was conducted by a new person asking the same question. 72% of the children believed that the man did something that had not actually happen and 44% claimed to have seen it. |
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Term
| ability to tell when children are telling stories |
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Definition
| Researchers, law enforcement officials, and therapists were allowed to watch video tapes of children telling true and false stories. They were at chance in deciding which were true or false although they were all confident that they were able to do so. |
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Term
| What are the two theories about how humans make decisions? |
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Definition
| logic or we wing it (go with gut feeling) |
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Term
| logic in making decisions |
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Definition
| the principles of reasoning, especially the structure of propositions as distinct from their content, the method and validity in deductive reasoning |
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Term
| What disciplines support the thought that logic is the crowning achievement of humans? |
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Definition
| Philosophy, mathematics, science, and computer science |
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Term
| method of decision making and reasoning |
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Definition
1. set goal
2. generate propositions, alternatives
3. evaluate propositions
4. cost benefit analysis
5. choose the alternative with the most favorable outcome |
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Term
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Definition
1. define a phenomenon
2. generate a hypothesis
3. experiementation - test hypothesis
4. eliminate unlikely hypothesis |
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Term
| testing a hypothesis in the scientific method includes |
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Definition
| - controlled data collection - observation - careful measurement |
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Term
| challenges of using logic |
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Definition
1.qualification of propositions, alternatives, goals, evaluations
2.amount of data involved
3.limited mental resources |
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Term
| chess players and computers |
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Definition
| tend to think that chess players are smart because they are good at logic however computers can now beat the best humans although people tend to think that computers are not smart |
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Term
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Definition
| not really, we can only hold 7+ or- 2 facts at a time in our short term memory and we commonly make mistakes in our logical reasoning |
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Term
| According to Gilovich, what are the common violations of logical reasoning? |
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Definition
| -making something out of nothing -see what we expect to see -too much from too little -believe what we are told -imagine agreement of others |
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Term
| making something out of nothing |
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Definition
| humans have a difficult time detecting randomness. people tend to look for causal relationships for random events |
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Term
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Definition
| a light is lit 80% on the right and 20% on the left. People try to guess the pattern and get 68% correct. Rats press right every time and get 80% correct. |
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Term
| in the Wolford study, what is the most accurate way of prediction: probability or maximizing |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| tried everything to get the subject to maximize, only occurs when the sequence is made to look more random. The sequence had to be made nonrandom to get subjects to treat it as random |
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Term
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Definition
| judgement by representativeness, inappropriate application of prototypes: real random sequences have too many subcomponents that look consistent for human ovservers to consider them random |
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Term
| misperceptions of regression to the mean |
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Definition
| 2 variables related, but not perfectly, an extreme value at one end is more likely to be followed by a less extreme value |
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Term
| Schafner experiment with reward vs. punishment |
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Definition
| High school student plays the role of teacher. They can either reprimand, reward, or make no comment to a hypothetical student who arrives randomly early, on time or late. Students rewarded early arrival and reprimanded late arrival. 70% believed punishment was more effective |
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Term
| In Schafner's experiment why did the students believe punishment was more effective? |
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Definition
| because of the random arrival times, if a student is early one day, he is more likely to be on time or late the next day. The reward given seems not to work. If a student arrives late one day, he is more likely to arrive early or on time the next day. The punishment given seems to have worked. |
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Term
| Seeing what we expect to see |
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Definition
| learning memory and belief impact evaluation of new data. This is generally a good thing however it can be bad if it doesnt allow an objective viewpoint |
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Term
| Lord's Mixed Evidence Experiment |
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Definition
| Two groups of people: in favor and against the death penalty. Two studies presented to each observer, one that supported the view of the supporter and one that contradicted the view. half of the group against the penalty was given study one in support and study two in contradiction and the other half was given study one in contradiction and study two in favor. The same was done with the group in favor of the death penalty. |
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Term
| Results of Mixed evidence experiment |
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Definition
| the participants believed the study that supported their view was a well conducted peice of research and the study that refuted their view had numerous flaws no matter which study they recieved. Subjects did not view support as more favorable as it was or ignore findings that refuted their position but they spent more time considering the refuting evidence and produced mostly valid criticisms of the study thus leaving the supporting study unchallenged |
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Term
| believing what we want to believe |
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Definition
| we believe a large number of things about ourselves that do not stand up to objective analysis |
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Term
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Definition
| all the men are strong, all the women are pretty, all the children are above average (that doesnt make sense) |
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Term
| High school senior's self rating on leadership |
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Definition
| 70% believed themselves to be above the average at their school in leadership |
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Term
| High School senior's self rating on their ability to get along with others |
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Definition
| all students believed they were above average, 60% believed they were in the top 10%, 25% believed they were in the top 25% |
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Term
| self rating of college professors |
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Definition
| 94% of college professors rate themselves as better at their jobs than their average colleague |
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Term
| Tendency to ignore the priors |
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Definition
| Bayes rule takes into accout prior statistics that are relavant. Because there is such a large number of healthy women taking the test, Out of 1000 people, 107 will test positive but only 8 of those women actually have breast cancer. This shows that we look for confirmatory evidence assuming the disease. |
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Term
| a compromise in decision making |
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Definition
| we act rationally and reasonably most of the time but the processes by which we achieve this are not logical. We use other kinds of processes to simulate rationality |
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Term
| neural networks and searching |
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Definition
| define a good solution, note all factors that impact, define a cost function, and search for the minimum cost |
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Term
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Definition
| search higly complicated spaces using a cost function that defines or constrains solutions, minimize cost or error, differ by the quality of search algorithm |
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Term
| What is the alternative to using our limited brain power to attempt logic and reasoning? |
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Definition
| emotion: a system that has been perfected over millions of years to maximize our chances of survival |
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Term
| why do we study emotion in cognitive science? |
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Definition
| becase emotion is closely tied to thought, perception, decision making, and learning.it is believed that unconscious computations underlie conscious decision |
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Term
| what are the disciplines and methods of studying emotion? |
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Definition
| clinical and counseling psychologists, physiologists, psychiatrists, neurologists, experimental psychologists, neuropsychologists |
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Term
| emotion: clinical and counseling psychologists |
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Definition
| introspection and psychoanalytic unconscious |
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Term
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Definition
| response of body to stress |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| often the first screening |
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Term
| emotion: experimental psychologists |
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Definition
| affects on behavior, social interaction, effectiveness |
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Term
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Definition
| LeDoux studied emotion in animals using fear conditioning, anatomical tracing, lesion and ablation, and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| preoccupation with consciousness, humans are conscious, humans are above the animals |
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Term
| to Freud what is the unconscious? |
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Definition
| home of the primitive instinct, a link between humans and animals, an important component of the human psyche, rationality is therefore to supress the unconscious |
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Term
| cognitive science reevaluation of the science of mind |
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Definition
| failure of logical computation, emphasis on neural computation, evolution of adaptive systems, progress of neuroscience |
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Term
| LeDoux's perspective on emotion |
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Definition
| not just one thing, emotion is best studied in isolation |
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Term
| the four F's of emotional evolution |
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Definition
| fight, flight, feeding, and f**king |
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Term
| when emotions occur in animals with consciousness.. |
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Definition
| emotions are experienced consciously, generated by unconscious processes, once aroused the feelings are conscious, post hoc analysis |
|
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Term
| why can emotion be studied using animal models? |
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Definition
| because animal and human brains are more comparable here than anywhere else |
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Term
|
Definition
| passively, though we can try to manipulate them |
|
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Term
| what did the lesion/ablation approach show about emotion? |
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Definition
| decorticate animals showed normal emotion, autonomic arousal (pupil dilation, blood pressure increases, piloerection etc.) although somewhat abnormal. This implies that emotion is located in the limbic region of the brain |
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Term
| Herrick's ideas about the limbic brain evolution |
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Definition
lateral surface-phylogenetically newer
medial part-phylogenetically older |
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Term
|
Definition
| stimulus - thalamus - hypothalamus - body reaction |
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Term
|
Definition
| stimulus - thalamus - cortex |
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Term
| emotion from integration circuit |
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Definition
| stimulus - thalamus - cortex - cingulate - hippocampus - hypothalamus - thalamus |
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Term
|
Definition
| used facial expressions to decide this list because they are universal indicators of emotion: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, disgust, surprise |
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Term
| for each emotion, name a psychological problem created from too much of that emotion |
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Definition
| fear:phobias, sadness:depression, happiness:mania, anger:agression, disgust:OCD |
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Term
| Why did LeDoux choose fear as a way to study emotions individually? |
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Definition
| because fear is pervasive and diverse in humans, prominent and diverse in psychopathology, and expressed similarly in humans and animals |
|
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Term
| what are the natural reactions to fear in humans and animals? |
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Definition
| withdrawl, immobility, defense aggression, submission |
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Term
| what happens in the presence of danger to an animal? |
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Definition
| the animal is startled, it orients, then if far it will flee, if close it will freeze, if unsuccessful it will vocalize and attack |
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Term
|
Definition
| standard classical conditioning, learning to pair a previously objective stimulus to a painful outcome even when that stimulus does not itself cause pain |
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Term
| fear conditioning rats to reveal where fear is in the brain |
|
Definition
| associated loud noises to fear, damage to the auditory cortex did not extinguish the condtioning. Anotomical tracers revealed projections to four areas, once amygdala was destroyed there was no fear conditioning |
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Term
| what does the amygdala do? |
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Definition
| it activates body responses to fear. Because of its position, the amygdala allows the fear to bypass the neocortex which makes the process faster. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a brain process (physiological reaction to a stimulus) a psychological reacton to a perception, system of drives, actions, fulfillment |
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Term
| taxonomy: primary emotion |
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Definition
| hard-wired through limbic system (stimulus activates the system), physiological response |
|
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Term
| taxonomy: secondary emotions |
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Definition
| consciously deliberate cognitive evaluation (possible simultaneous activation of limbic) |
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Term
| where was the damage in Phineas Gage's brain? |
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Definition
| prefrontal cortex bilaterally, ventral and inner surfaces affected, vertromedial (known to be involved in decision making) |
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Term
|
Definition
| brain tumor patient, ventromedial prefrontal damage. After surgery he was unable to make a good decision even though his IQ, language comprehension, face matching skills, perceptual skill, etc. were normal. |
|
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Term
| what was causing Elliot's inability to make decisions? |
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Definition
| he was uneffected by emotions, elliot could generate the possible solutions and evaluate outcomes, but still said he didnt know what to do (somatic marker hypothesis) |
|
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Term
| somatic marker hypothesis |
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Definition
| decisions involve a body-based marker that is the result of a secondary emotion, there is an associative connection to a previous experience, before the cost-benefit analysis we go with our feeling |
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Term
| What is one thing you learned from the Webster article? |
|
Definition
| people adapt face perception to the average characteristics of the average faces he or she encounters in their life |
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|
