o     Meaning is shaped in multiple stages (through the circuit model, for example)

§       Each stage impacts the others

§       Fixed meanings are impossible

§       No ONE stage in the meaning-making process can guarantee meaning in the next

o     So, for TV this means…

§       Audience participates in meaning-making

§       Producers can’t funny control meaning

o     Texts are decoded at the level of audience consumption (ie, exhibition)

§       Positions of decoding (Dominant/hegemonic, negotiated, and oppositional) are based on codes

o     Texts are encoded at the level of production

§       Producers and writers encode preferred meanings through the text and various production techniques (mise-en-scene, editing, etc.)

o     In both encoding and decoding, meaning is shaped through

§       Frameworks of knowledge (how the world is viewed)

§       Relation to production

§       Access to the technological infrastructure

o     There are few perfectly dominant or oppositional readings of texts

o     The model works best with overtly ideological texts, such as the news or religious shows (700 Club)

o     The model doesn’t consider the contestatory nature of encoding

o     The model fails to link decoding after encoding

§       How does audience interpretation of codes affect the way codes are presented in subsequent texts?

·      A theory that stems from the Marxist idea that the ruling class rules/dominates because they control the means of production and can therefore deem what is “common sense”

o     In terms of TV, dominant ideas can be disseminated repeatedly

o     Through repetition

§       Same stereotypes and ideas are reiterated through different texts over time

§       This is how “common sense” is created

o     By assuming that the world can be proscriptive and descriptive

§       Can be good or bad for everyone

o     When differences between people are naturalized, “normal” is defined

·      The theory that texts have multiple, equal meanings that circulate at the same time (however, polysemy is still structured)

·      The way a polysemic text, is decoded is by relating it to your own system of beliefs, as opposed to favoring some meanings over others because of their implied superiority, which is what the hegemonic view of television suggests

o     A set of consumers who need to be given choices

§       In terms of both programming and advertising

o     Many consider the public to be an audience that needs to be entertained

o     Others believe that it is a “citizenry that needs to be educated”

·      Defining public interest:

o     Commercial Broadcasters believe that…

§       Public interest = what interests the public

§       Therefore, they necessarily serve the public interest

§       There is a need to generate audience to generate revenue

o     Dominant/hegemonic

§       Accepts preferred roles

o     Negotiated

§       Partially accepts preferred codes

o     Oppositional

§       Rejects preferred codes

§       Uses alternative codes

·      TV changes culture perception of ourselves and others

·      The impact can go two ways

o     Influence OF TV images

§       How TV shapes perceptions

o     Influence ON TV images

§       How perceptions shape TV

·      Sitcoms are so successful that it takes away from the dramas

·      Dramas were more successful on cable where they were narrowcast (BET)

o     Regular dramas become more multi-ethnic (Law & Order), feel that niche is not needed

·      A theory that stems from the Marxist idea that the ruling class rules/dominates because they control the means of production and can therefore deem what is “common sense”

o     In terms of TV, dominant ideas can be disseminated repeatedly

·      How hegemony works:

o     Through repetition

§       Same stereotypes and ideas are reiterated through different texts over time

§       This is how “common sense” is created

o     By assuming that the world can be proscriptive and descriptive

§       Can be good or bad for everyone

o     When differences between people are naturalized, “normal” is defined

·      Refers to the process of dividing up the audience

·      Creating differences between normal and abnormal, set up two things opposed to one another

·      Different programming has different advantages to it, what reliable and what isn’t

·      More power you have, the more powerful your image making is

·      Divisions between self and others

·      Speaker delivers/conveys message to receiver

·      Speaker AàMessageà Receiver B

·      Speaker Bà Messageà Receiver A

·      Audience member is passive and has no role

·      Codes: generally recognized frames of reference used to express meanings

·      Texts are encoded; audience decode

·      Different codes lead to different decodings

·      Circulation (message is transmitted) à Distribution/consumption (message is received) à reproduction/feedback (message is accepted and produced) à Production (message is produced) à Circulation, etc.

·      Pre-existing work transformed into new texts

·      Creative work

·      Community formation

·      “adoring offspring” not industry’s nemesis

·      Not just viewership, but active and loyal viewership

·      Narrative Activismà disruptive/unwanted by netwrork—i.e. plane flying over ‘Big Brother’

·      Narrative Involvementà controlled by network—i.e. calling in or texting in- i.e. ‘American Idol’

·      First amendment isn’t just about the right to speak

o     Also about the necessity of circulating ideas

·      Public interest isn’t just about content, but also access

·      Satellite and cable create more choices, but the number of voice is the same

·      The “public” is defined as the following –

o     A set of consumers who need to be given choices

§       In terms of both programming and advertising

o     Many consider the public to be an audience that needs to be entertained

o     Others believe that it is a “citizenry that needs to be educated”

·      Debate over whether “public interest” indicates what the public wants or what it needs

·      Defining public interest:

o     Commercial Broadcasters believe that…

§       Public interest = what interests the public

§       Therefore, they necessarily serve the public interest

§       There is a need to generate audience to generate revenue

·      What public needs, not wants

·      Calls for balance

·      Concern for children and education

·      Makes a case for deregulation- don’t want the government to be involved

·      Ownership more than censorship

·      Wants for free market to rule—no caps on ownership

·      They were having problems with public resource (other media use other resources) and with scarcity

·      They defined Public Interest as= to 1^st amendment freedoms-they opened them up

·        Advances in technology make amateur production easier

o       1970’s: VHS

o       1980’s/90’s: 8mm and Hi-8 camcorders

o       1990’s/2000’s: DV & mini DV & desktop editing

·        These modes of production still private

·      Distribution gives professionals the advantage

·      Public, education, and government channels

·      Cable companies are allowed local monopolies but must carry PEG channels (not defined under must-carry rules)

·      The operator provides the channel space, studio, equipment, training and the municipalities/users provide everything else (staff, etc)

·      The system is first come, first serve

·      They are mandated to air all content that they are provided with as long as it is not obscene

·      Founded in late 1970’s

·      Nationally distributed (via tapes) by 1981

·      Several collectives (via satellite) by 1990’s

·      Intended to critique corporate media

·      Intentionally cheap aesthetic

·      Nonprofit foundation that stepped in to suggest goals for ETV (Educational Television)

·      Comprised of nationally known figures from higher education, media, business, politics, and the arts

·      Recommendations:

o     A Nationalized Corporation for Public Broadcasting

o     PB should be educational and cultural

o     Insulated Funding- when PBS was founded, the idea was that its funding would be insulated from political influences by budgeting far into the future

o     Half of board of directors should be presidential appointees, half from public at large

·      The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 created the Corporation for Public Broadcastingà CPB can purchase, produce, and distribute programs but CANNOT dictate schedules

·      The funding is NOT INSULATED- (insulated- get money w/o congress)

·      Can purchase, produce and distribute programs but CANNOT dictate affiliate schedules at all

·      Funding NOT insulated

·      Board made of Presidential appointees

·      Produce their own programming

·      Pay fees to play affiliates and CPBs productions

·      Pay fees for BBC programming

·      Serve as “Presenting Stations” for independent production

·      PBS provides programming for underserved audiences

·      Acts as a non-commercial network

·      Strives to be diverse, educational, politically challenging and cultural

·      Traditional:

o     Taxes

o     Fees from selling programs

o     Underwriting-corporations

o     “Viewers like you”

§       Affects programming

·      Aufderheide- “safely splendid” programming

o     Frontline, Masterpiece Theater

o     “enhanced underwriting”

§       Direct, flashy ads- Google

o     Ancillary Marketing

§       Product not marketed directly- Youtube “Tickle Me Elmo”

·      The goals of the BBC are to use scarce public airwaves “to inform, to educate, to establish”à Unite and uplift British public through broadcasting

·      They have license fees, but not commercial influence

·      $ from peopleà BBC

·      From the right:

o     Public monopoly not as efficient as market system

·      From the left:

o     Who is to say what is best for everyone?

§       Rich white guys?

§       Leaves out subcultures such as minorities, women, working class (big) from the definition of culture

·      New Mandate:

o     Audiences are at the heart of everything we do

o     We take pride in delivering quality and value for money

o     Creativity is the lifeblood of our organization

o     We respect each other and celebrate our diversity

o     We are one BBC

·      Catholic, Protestant, Liberal, Socialist

o     à all programming through one of these categories

o     Instead of having a marketplace of ideas, they wanted to promote a marketplace of identities

o     Funded by the government- each pillar is a social/religious group, programming applies to each group

o     Need a petition to get a broadcasting signal

o     Should cater to the identities

·      Endemol – Dutch based company with 33 subsidiaries across the world

·      FORMAT sold to over 40 countries/regions/virtual regions

·      Advantage

o     Proven success with audiences

o     Can still be made fully “local” in feel

·      Occurred in the 1980sà Ramadan musalsalats are serials- serial programming

·      This is a sweeps period during Ramadan

·      Serials- short groups of television programming that relate to one another

·      Relate to ideas surrounding Rammadan, air during Rammadan

·      So popular that they can use profits for the rest of the year- excellent advertising

·      1960’s – 80s

o     1966 IETV

o     1967 War – TV plays key role in morale building and strategic communication

o     TV also seen as way of acclimating immigrants

o     TV becomes accepted part of Israeli culture NOT as entertainment vehicle

o     One channel (IBA/IETV) until 1993

o     Bulk of non news programming American

o     The increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and governments across the world

o     The movement of goods, money, ideas and people across national borders

·      View #2 – The “global web” or hybridity

o     There is no single direction to the way culture flows

o     Yes, the West has influence, but so does the rest of the world

§       Localized MTVs, US imports, TV formats, foreign stars on US TV

§       All culture is “hybridized” with others in a globalized world