View of Human Nature

(a-d)

b. _____ expressed that people strove to become successful and overcome the areas that they perceived as inferior. He referred to this process of personal growth as striving for perfection. Those who did not overcome feelings of inferiority developed an inferiority complex. Those who overcompensated for feelings of inferiority developed a superiority complex.

c. ____ believed that a peunconscious, was the mainstay of personality development. Because of this concept, ______ theory emphasizes personal responsibility for how .

d. Maladjustment is defined in ______ theory as choosing behavior resulting in a lack of social interest or personal growth. ____ believed that misbehavior would take place when the person had become discouraged or when positive attempts at good behavior had failed to get the needed results. Encouragement to good behavior was often the recommended antidote to misbehavior .

f. _____ espoused the belief that the birth of each child changed the family substantially. He thought that the birth order of the children in the family influenced many aspects of their personality development. Briefly, characteristics of these birth positions are:

i. Oldest children are usually high achievers, parent pleasers, conforming, and are well behaved.
ii. Second born children are more outgoing, less anxious, and less constrained by rules than first borns. They usually excel as what the first born does not.
iii. Middle children have a feeling of being squeezed in and are concerned with perceived unfair treatment. These children learn to excel in family politics and negotiation. However, they can become very manipulative. This position also tends to develop areas of success that are not enjoyed by their siblings.
iv. The youngest child is the most apt at pleasing or entertaining the family. While they run the risk of being spoiled, they are also the most apt at getting what they want through their social skills and ability to please. They are often high achievers, because of the role models of their older siblings.

g. Only children or children born seven or more years apart from siblings are more like first born children. Children with no siblings often take on the characteristics of their parents birth order, as the parents are the only role models. While these children may mature early and be high achievers, they may lack socialization skills, expect pampering, and be selfish.

h. ___ saw the family as the basic socialization unit for the child. He interpretation of the events in their life was determined by the interaction with family members before the age of five. The family interactions taught the children to perceive events and situations through certain subjective evaluations of themselves and the called fictions. Basic mistakes could be made based on these fictions. ______ believe that some of those mistakes are (Mozak, 1984):

i. Over-generalizing in which the individual believes that everything is the same or alike.

ii. False or impossible goals of security which leads the individual to try to please everyone in seeking security and avoiding danger.

iii individual to expect more accommodation than is reasonable and to interpret their failure to get accommodation as never getting any breaks.

iv. Minimization or denbelieving that they cannot be successful in life.

v. Faulty values results in a "me first" mentality with little or no regard for others.

vi. ____ believed that life took courage or a willingness to take risks without knowing the outcome. He believed that a person with a healthy life style contributed to society, had meaningful work, and had intimate relationships. He espoused cooperation between the genders as opposed to competition. He believed that well adjusted people lived in an interdependent relationship with others in a cooperative spirit .

 Role of the counselor

The counselor is as a diagnostician, teacher and model. The counselor helps the client to explore conscious thoughts, beliefs and logic for client-counselor relationship is an equal one with the counselor sharing insights, impressions, opinions, and feelings with the client to promote the therapeutic relationship. Therapy is very cognitive with an emphasis on the examination of faulty logic and empowering the client to take responsibility to change through a re-educational process. The counselor encourages the client to behave "as if" the client were who they wised to be and often provides the client with "homework" assignments outside the sessions. _______ are eclectic in technique with an emphasis on encouragement and responsibility .

 Goals of Adlerian counseling

a. Goals focus on helping the client develop a healthy lifestyle and social interest. The counselor assists the client through four goals of the therapeutic process, establishing a therapeutic relationship, examining the style of life, developing client insight, and changing behavior. The behavior change is the result of the individual taking personal responsibility for behavior .

 Techniques

a. Most commonly used are establishing rapport, defining style of life and helping the client to gain insight. While _______ may borrow many techniques from other theories, specific theories used to encourage change are .

b. Confrontation consists of challenging the clients private logic and behavior.

c. Asking "the Question" consists of asking the client how their life would be different if they were well? The question often asked to parents is what would be the problem if this child were not the problem?

d. Encouragement consists of the counselor supporting the client by behavior.

e. Acting "as if" consists of instructing the client to behave "as if" there were no problem or as the person that the client would like to be.

f. spiting in the clients soup means that the counselor points out the havior. Afterward, the client may continue the behavior, but cannot do so without being aware of their motivation for engaging in the behavior.

g. Catching oneself consist of helping the client learn to bring destructive behavior into awareness and stop it.

h. Task setting consists of helping the client set short-term goals leading toward the attainment of long-term goals.

 View of Human Nature

b. He believed that if given the appropriate environment of acceptance, warmth and empathy, the individual would move toward self- actualization

c. Self-actualization is the motivation that makes the individual move toward growth, meaning, and purpose

d. Person-centered is considered a phenomenological psychology d as reality for the individual .

 f. _____ believed that most people were provided conditional acceptance as children, which lead them to behave in ways that would assure their acceptance. However, in their need for acceptance, the individual often behaved in ways that were incongruent with the real self. Thus, the greater this incongruence between the real self and the ideal self, the greater isolated and maladjusted the person became.

 Role of the counselor

b. The person-centered counselor uses psychological testing on a limited basis. The Q-sort is sometimes used. The statements are self-descriptions, i.e. I am capable, I am dependent, I am worthless. The client is asked to read and sort each of these statements into nine piles from most like me to least like me. The client re-sorts the cards into what they would like to be like. The Q sort gives an indication of the incongruence between the perceived real self and ideal self.

c. The use of diagnostic categories is discouraged as incompatible with the philosophical view of the individual as unique. Diagnosis places the counselor in a position of authority and imposes a treatment plan

 Goals

i. Realistic self-perception

ii. Greater confidence and self-direction
iii. Sense of positive worth
iv. Greater maturity, social skill, and adaptive behavior

v. Better stress coping
vi. More fully functioning in all aspects of their lives.

 Techniques

a. The techniques used in person-centered therapy have changed over time.

b. Three periods of time in which different techniques were stressed.:

i. Nondirective Period (1940-1950). In this period of theory development, the counselor focused on listening and creating a permissive atmosphere. The counselor did not provide interventions, but communicated acceptance and clarification

ii. Reflective Period (1950-1957). During this period of time, counselors emphasized being non judgmental of the client, while nd reflecting the affect accurately

iii. Experiential Period (1957-1980) This is the period of the EWG: Empathy, Warmth and Genuineness. Empathy is the ability of the counselor to understand the emotions of the client and correctly communicate this understanding. Warmth is also referred to as acceptance and positive regard in person-centered literature. Warmth is the ability of the counselor to convey a unconditional is the ability to be who one really is without assuming roles or facades

c. The counselor helps the client through accurate reflections of feelings, keeping the client focused on the concern, and clarification of feelings and information. The counselor uses open-ended questions or phrases to help the clients gain insight into experiences and necessary changes in their lives

 View of Human Nature

b. Psychopathology is defined by ___________ as neglecting to make meaningful choices and accentuating ones potential

c. Anxiety is seen as the motivational force that helps the clients to reach their potential. Conversely, anxiety is also seen as the paralyzing force that prevents clients from reaching their full potential. Therefore, through awareness, this anxiety can be helpful in living more fully

d. _____ shares that each person searches for meaning in life, and that while this meaning may change, the meaning never ceases to be.

e. _____: lifes meaning can be discovered in 3 ways:

i.  by doing a deed (accomplishments or achievements),
ii. by experiencing a value (beauty, love, nature, and arts)
iii. by suffering (reconciling ourselves to fate.

 Role of the Counselor

a. Each client is considered a unique relationship with the counselor focusing on being authentic with the client and entering into a deep personal sharing relationship

b. The counselor models how to be authentic, to realize personal potential, and to make decisions with emphasis on mutuality, wholeness and growth.

c. _________ counselors do not diagnosis, nor do they use assessment models like the DSM-IV.

b. A goal of _________ therapy is to develop self-awareness to promote potential, freedom, and commitment to better life choices

c. A major goal is to help the client develop an internal frame of reference, as opposed to the outward one .

Techniques

a. The most common technique used in existential counseling is the relationship with the client .

b. Confrontation is also used by existential counselors, when they challenge the clients with their own responsibility for their lives

View of Human Nature

b. ____ is most concerned with irrational thinking especially that which creates upsetting or irrational thoughts.

c. ____ lists the most common irrational beliefs that clients find disturbing

i. It is absolutely essential to be loved or approved of by every
ii. To be worthwhile, a person must be competent , adequate, and achieving in everything attempted.
iii. Some people are wicked, bad, and villainous and therefore should be blamed or punished.
iv. It is terrible and a catastrophe whenever events do not occur as one hopes.
v. Unhappiness is the result of outside events, and therefore a person has no control over such despair.
vi. Something potentially dangerous or harmful should be cause to great concern and should always be kept in mind.

vii. Running away from difficulties and responsibilities is easier than facing them.
viii. A person must depend on others and must have someone stronger on whom to rely.

ix. changed.
x. A person should be upset by the problems and difficulties of others.

xi. There is always a right answer to every problem, and a failure to find this answer is a catastrophe.

d. ____ sees the individual as being easily disturbed because of gullibility and suggestibility

e. ____ is a proponent of the individual thinking of their behavior as separate from their personhood, i.e. "I did a bad thing" rather than "I am a bad person."

f. ____ believes that each individual has the ability to control their thoughts, feelings and their actions. In order to gain this control, a person must first understand what they are telling themselves (self-talk) about the event or situation .

g. ____ believes that cognitions about events or situations can be of four types: positive, negative, neutral, or mixed. These cognitions result in like thoughts with positive leading to positive thoughts, negative leading to negative thoughts, etc.

 Role of the Counselor

b. ___ believes that a good RET counselor must be bright, knowledgeable, empathetic, persistent, scientific, interested in helping others and use RET in their personal lives.

c. The counselor does not rely heavily on the DSM-IV categories.

Goals

a. The primary goal is to help people live rational and productive lives

b. RET helps people see that it is their thoughts and beliefs about events that creates difficulties, not the events or situations themselves

c. RET helps the client to understand that wishes and wants are not entitlements to be demanded. Thinking that involves the words must, should, ought, have to, and need are demands, not an expression of wants or desires.

d. RET helps clients stop catastrophizing when wants and desires are not met

e. RET stresses the appropriateness of the emotional response to the situation or event. An situation or event need not elicit more of a response than is appropriate

f. RET assists people in changing self-defeating behaviors or cognitions

g. RET espouses acceptance and tolerance of self and of others in order to achieve life goals

i. Activating event

ii. Belief or thought process

iii. Emotional Consequences

b. Cognitive disputation is aimed at asking the client questions challenging the

c. Imaginal disputation has the client use imagery to examine a situation where the become upset. The technique is used in one of two ways:

i.The client imagines the situation, examines the self-talk, and then changes the self-talk leading to a more moderate response.

ii.The client imagines a situation in which they respond differently than is habitual, and are asked to examine the self-talk in this imagery .

d. The Emotional Control Card is an actual card intended for the client to carry in their wallet which has a list of inappropriate or self-destructive feelings countered with appropriate nondefeating feelings. In a difficult situation, the client has this reference card on their person to help them intervene in their own self-talk

e. Behavioral disputation involves having the client behave in a way that is opposite to the way they would like to respond to the event or situation

f. Confrontation occurs when the counselor challenges an illogical or irrational belief that the client is expressing

g. Encouragement involves explicitly urging the client to use RET rather than to continue self-defeating responses

Behavioral Theories (B. F. Skinner)

a. Behaviorists, with the exception of cognitive behaviorists, concentrate on be observed .

b. Behaviorism has a here-and-now focus

c. A basic tenet of Behaviorism is that all behavior is learned whether the behavior is maladaptive or adaptive

d. Behaviorists believe that adaptive behavior can be learned to replace maladaptive behavior

e. Behaviorists believe in setting up well-defined, measurable and observable goals in therapy

f. Behaviorists reject the idea that human personality is composed of traits

g. Behaviorists strive for empirical evidence to support their use of specific techniques and to support the usage of behavioral therapy techniques

h. Respondent learning is often referred to as stimulus-response learning in which the learner does not need to be an active participant. The outcome is the conditioning of involuntary responses. The unlearning of these conditioned responses is called counterconditioning

i. Operant conditioning requires that the participant be actively involved. This type of learning involves rewarding the desired behavior or punishing the undesired behavior until the person learns to discriminate the desired behavior that elicits the reward. Operant conditioning differs from respondent conditioning in that operant conditioning is the conditioning of voluntary responses through rewards or reinforces

j. Social modeling is the process where new behavior is learned from watching other people and events without experiencing the consequences from the behavior or engaging in the behavior

Role of the Counselor

b. the counselor is active and may supervise other ppl in the clients environment to achieve the goals of therapy

c. Counselors using social learning may model the desired behavior, while respondent and operant conditioning counselors are more directive and prescriptive in their approach to the therapy goals

d. Use of tests and diagnosis varied greatly among behavioral counselors

Goals

b.Four steps in developing therapeutic goals are .:

i.Define the problem concretely specifying when, where, how and with whom the problem exists.

ii. Take a developmental history of the problem eliciting conditions surrounding the beginning of the problem and what solutions the client has tried in the past.

iii. Establish specific subgoals in small incremental steps toward the final goal.

iv.Determine the best behavioral method to be used help the client change.

Techniques

b. Reinforcers can be negative or positive. Positive reinforcers are those that are desired by the client;; while negative reinforcers are contingencies to be avoided. Primary reinforcers are those that are intrinsically; while secondary reinforcers are tokens that aquire their value by being associated with a primary reinforcer .

c. Schedules of Reinforcement

i. Fixed-ratio means that the reinforcer is delivered after a set number of responses .
ii. Fixed-interval means that the reinforcer is delivered after a set time lapses .
iii. Variable-ration means that the reinforcer is delivered after varying numbers of responses .

iv. A variable-interval means that the reinforcer is delivered at varying time intervals .

b. Shaping is learning behavior in small steps that are successive approximations toward the final desired behavior. Chaining is the order of the desired sequence of skills leading to the desired behavior .

c. Generalization is the transfer of the learnings from the behavioral therapy room to the outside world .

d. Maintenance is the consistent continuation of learned behaviors without support -control and self-management .

e. Extinction is the elimination of a behavior through withholding a reinforcer

f. Punishment is the delivery of aversive stimuli resulting in suppressing ro eliminating a behavior .

g.Behavioral rehearsal is the of repeating and improving a behavior until the client accomplishes the behavior that is desired

h. Environmental planning is a process where the client arranges the circumstances to promote or inhibit particular behaviors .

i. Systematic desensitization a process accomplished through successive approximations to reduce anxiety toward an anxiety provoking event or situation. The steps needed to accomplish the behavior are listed and prioritized from no anxiety to most anxiety. The hierarchy is reviewed with the counselor helping the client to learn relaxation techniques to reduce or overcome anxiety. As a client cannot feel anxious and relaxed at the same time, the phenomenon is termed reciprocal inhibition. Through this process, the client can ultimately perform the desired behavior .

j. Assertiveness training is a technique where the client is taught to express their appropriate feelings without hostility, anxiety, or passivity. The actual training may include all of the other behavioral techniques to achieve the desired behaviors .

k. Contingency contracts are written agreements in which the desired behaviors are specifically described, what reinforcers are to be given and under what circumstances the reinforcers will be administered to the client. Contingency contracts are most often used in working with children .

l. Implosion is having the client desensitized by imagining a anxiety provoking situation that may have a dire consequences. Flooding is similar except the anticipated outcome of the anxiety provoking situation is not dire. This technique is contraindicated for use by beginning counselors .

m. Time out is an aversive technique where the client is prevented, usually through some form of isolation, from receiving a positive reinforcer.

n. Overcorrection is an aversive technique where the client is required to restore the environment and to improve it substantially .

o. Covert sensitization is an aversive technique where a behavior is eliminated by pairing its association with an unpleasant thought

p. Cognitive restructuring is helping the clients change how they think about an event or situation by examining their thoughts and challenging the irrational or self-defeating thoughts .

q. Stress inoculation is a three step preventive technique .:

r. Define the nature of stress and coping for the client.

s. Teach specific stress reduction and coping skills to expand those stress and coping skills the client already uses.

t. The client practices these new skills outside of the therapy room in real life situations

u. Thought stopping is a series of procedures which help the client to replace self-defeating thoughts with assertive, positive or neutral thoughts. The initial procedure is one in which the counselor asks the client to think obsessively in a self defeating manner, then suddenly and unexpectedly yells, "stop." The client cannot continue the self-defeating thoughts after this disruption .