a.       Also known as Lifestyles Theory

b.      Lifestyles contribute significantly to volume and type of crime

c.       Example: Changes in American society during 1960s and 1970s (increase in personal wealth and increase in involvement in social acitivies outside of the home) 

a.      Criminal behavior is a function of choices and decisions made within the context of situation constraints and opportunities

b.      Crime is not solely a matter of motivation, but also a matter of opportunity

c.       Probability of criminal activity decreases by changing features of the environment

                                                                                                                                      i.      Ex: reduce crime by always having a capable guardian, keep things lit up, locking doors, etc.

a.      Involves the hypothalamus, which controls aggression. Acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter (chemical in the brain) controls aggression and attack.

                                                                                                                                      i.      Ex: Cat dosed with pesticides becomes a hyper-aggressive hunter

                                                                                                                                    ii.      Ex: Previously mild-tempered 25 year-old male worked for a pesticide company; developed overwhelming rage and killed an old lady

                                                               i.      Could identify criminals by individuals’ facial features and physique. Thought tattoos were also an indicator of crime

                                                               i.      Studies 480 children for 30+ years (longitudinal study!)

1.       Tried to predict which children would get into trouble with the law using risk factors such as growing up in poverty, underage drinking, poor behavior in school, and having fathers that were in prison.

                                                               i.      Written accounts of family history of prison and behavior

                                                             ii.      Noticed that many traits shown by males were passed on by their fathers, thus relating the traits (associated with crime) to the X-chromosome; genetic pre-destination

                                                            iii.      MAO (monoamine oxidase) is linked to nerve impulses in the brain and could explain uncontrollable rage

                                                               i.      Robbed a pizza place and killed the store owner

                                                             ii.      He found out that he may have a genetic impulse control disorder. He has four generations of impulse issues, abuse, and aggressive behavior in his family.

                                                            iii.      He used this medical claim to change his sentencing and avoid the death penalty. 

                                                               i.      He was previously a lawyer with a drug and alcohol problem. Took $ from a customer’s trust fund.

                                                             ii.      Claims to have an “alcoholic gene,” as many Native Americans do

                                                            iii.      This is a significant case, because it is the first time that a defense based on genes was used and worked!

movie:      Brian Bakatham

                                                               i.      Conduct issues as a child, hyper, impulsive, attention-seeking

                                                             ii.      Sought help from Dr.Cummings and was told that he had a genetic disorder that affected his behavior

                                                            iii.      He was given antipsychotic drugs and they allegedly worked. He stopped taking them, because he didn’t like the side-effects. Committed 7 robbers while off of the drugs

                                                               i.      Good vs evil and how people should be judged

                                                             ii.      Allbi Cathedral has a painting/story about judgment day. People are judged by society, not science.

l ock-and-key model

                                                               i.      The neurotransmitters are the “keys,” because they turn on/off receptors

                                                             ii.      Receptors are the “locks” because only certain types of neurotransmitters can “fit” into them and activate the transmission of chemical messages ((If you need help with this, let me know. It’s a lot easier to explain in person))

                                                               i.      Experiment found that people could tolerate more pain after running, because exercise releases endogenous opiates. People can become addicted to running; physical addiction to their own body’s chemicals

                                                             ii.      Experiment: Used Operant-conditioning (rewards/punishment) to test addictions of endogenous opiates

1.       Gave rats electrical shock stimulation (when in pain, body creates endorphins)

2.       Rats starved themselves so that they could receive more electric shocks, because they were physically addicted to their endogenous opiates

1.       Experiment: when cells emitted a single “burse,” researchers gave it a cocaine injection. The bursts of the cell exponentially increased in frequency, presumably to receive more doses of cocaine. Operant conditioning

2.       This is important, because some people have more “idling” cells than others and get bored more easily. When they are bored, they tend to engage in high-risk, high-action activities. Become addicted to endogenous opiates and thrill

1.       Found that people that are easily bored have lower MAO; people that are more active, have higher levels of MAO

2.       Addicted to MAO, sensation-seekers

                                                               i.      Compelled to perform rituals

                                                             ii.      Serotonin levels are lower in people with this disorder

1.       Dominant males have twice as high serotonin levels as other members’ of group. These levels dropped, if they were removed from the dominant-male position

2.       Therefore, the capacity to elevate serotonin levels may increase the ability to become a dominant member in a group

what behaviors are serotonin related to?                

                                                               i.      Serotonin is also related to aggressive behavior, suicidal behavior, and depression

movie: list  Four things that trigger highs in pleasure center

                                                               i.      Romantic love/infatuation

                                                             ii.      Music

                                                            iii.      Cocaine

                                                           iv.      Religion

1.       Actions of adults are understood in terms of childhood development

2.       Behavior and unconscious motives are intertwined

a.       Whereas Rational Choice Model focused on free-will and the conscience, psychoanalytic theory fixates on unconscious drives (no free-will)

3.       Criminality is a representation of psychological conflict (conflict between the id, ego, and superego!)

a.       Conscience (superego) is so overbearing that it arouses feelings of guilt

b.      People commit crimes so they can be caught and punished

Once punished, feelings of guilt are relieved

a.       A conscience so weak that it can’t control a person’s impulses

a.       Need for immediate gratification

                                                                                                                                       i.      Defect in character formation

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Relationships with people important are only deemed important so long as they help satisfy the individual’s needs and desires.

                                                                                                                                    iii.      This is common in people with Antisocial Personality Disorder (also known as Sociopathy)

                                                              i.      Study: Yochelson & Samerow 

three most prominent traits in criminals: list

a.       Angry people who feel a sense of superiority

b.      Expect not to be held accountable for actions

c.       High inflated self-image + any perceived attack on glorified self image elicits strong and often violent reactions

 Study: Yochelson & Samerow 

what did they do?

  Identified 52 patterns of thinking that are commonly found in criminals

Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

three dimensions of crimality: list

1. psychoticism

2. neuroticism

3. extroversion

Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

psychoticism

a.       Aggressive, egocentric, impulsive

Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

extroversion

a.       Sensation-seeking, dominant, assertive

Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

neuroticism

a.       Low self-esteem, excessive anxiety, wide range of mood swings

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ

used for what?

                                                               i.      is used to assess individuals’ personalities

1.       Criminals score higher on the previously aforementioned dimensions of personality than non-criminals

1.       From birth, we are rewarded for pro-social behavior and punished for anti-social behavior. Children develop a conscience over time. How quickly this conscience develops may determine whether the child is at a risk for criminal activity

a.       criminals are conditioned slowly and don’t appear to care if their acts bring about social disproval.

b.      Extroverts are harder to condition than introverts, because they have difficulties in developing a conscience

1.       Low levels of cortical arousal are associated with poor conditionability, difficulties in developing a conscience, and the need for intense external stimulation  (all of these are associated with criminality)

a.       Activation of the cerebral cortex is responsible for higher intellectual reasoning, information processing, & decision making.

                                                               i.      Strength of emotional bond in infancy and early childhood affects ability to form attachments in the future

1.       Baby monkeys preferred warm and soft substitute mothers to substitute mothers made out of wire that gave milk.

2.       When the baby monkeys were deprived of a warm and soft substitute mother, they were never able to form bonds with other monkeys and were uncontrollable and aggressive as adults.

a.       Shows that the bond between a baby and its mother (or motherly figure) is important 

1.       of preference

2.       Attachment endures and persists; sometimes throughout the life cycle

3.       Children form attachment to one primary figure in the first 4 months of their life

a.       Usually to person who provides most social interaction

4.       Attachment is not a product of reward and reinforcement, but rather of basic social interaction.

5.       Attachment behavior has a biological function of survival and is found in almost all species of mammals and birds

6.       Child needs to experience warm, intimate, & continuous relationship with either their mother or a mother substitute, in order to be securely attached.

a.       When a child is separated from its mother or rejected by her, this leads to ANXIOUS ATTACHMENT, which affects their capability to be affectionate and form intimate relationships with others.

b.      Habitual criminals typically have an inability to form bonds of affection with others.

                                                               Study conducted by Joan McCord: Variables that predict criminality (4)

a.       Inadequate marital affection and supervision

b.      Parental conflict

c.       Mother has low self-esteem

d.      Fathers are deviant

                                                              i.      Operant conditioning

1.       Reinforcements determine whether behavior will be repeated

2.       Positive Reinforcement

a.       Reward; any positive experience

                                                                                                                                       i.      Ex: Rat presses the right lever and is given food.

3.       Punishment:

a.       Aversive consequence

                                                                                                                                       i.      Ex: Rat presses wrong lever and is given shock

4.       Negative reinforcement

a.       Removal of an aversive stimulus

                                                                                                                                       i.      Ex: Rat shocked until it presses a lever

a.       Reward; any positive experience

                                                                                                                                       i.      Ex: Rat presses the right lever and is given food.

a.       Aversive consequence

Ex: Rat presses wrong lever and is given shock

a.       Removal of an aversive stimulus

                                                                                                                                       i.      Ex: Rat shocked until it presses a lever

1.       Some passive children at play were victimized by other kids.

a.       Some kids curbed these attacks with counter aggression

b.      Defensive fighting eventually leads to initiating attacks

2.       Other passive kids were not victimized and remained passive and submissive.

a.       Socially (Family)

b.      Subculture

c.       Mass media

a.       Violence found in 60% of all tv shows

b.      “Bad” characters went unpunished 90% of the time

c.       73% of characters showed no remorse after committing violent acts

d.      40% of violent interactions were with perpetrators who were attractive and “good guys.”

pre-conventional morality

1.       Concrete interests of individual in terms of punishment and reward

2.       Child only cares about its own interests

Conventional morality

1.       Moral problems approached by individual as a member of society

2.       People want to please others by acting as good members of society

1.       Obedience and punishment

a.       People stick to rules in order to avoid punishment

b.      Notion of obedience for own sake

1.       Reward Orientation

a.       Rules are followed only for one’s own benefit

b.      Obedience occurs because of rewards

1.       Good Boy” Morality

a.       Interest in maintaining respect of others and doing what is expected of them

1.       Authority and Social Order

a.       People conform to society’s rules and consider things “right” only if society deems them to be

Post-conventional morality (after 20 years old)

1.       People use moral principles that are seen as broader than those of any part of society.

1.       Contracts, Individual Rights, & Democratically Accepted Law

a.       People do what is right because of sense of obligation to laws that are agreed upon within a society

b.      Laws can be modified as a part of changers in an implicit social contract 

1.       Individual Principles and Conscience

a.       People follow laws because they are based on universally ethical principles

b.      Laws that violate these principles are disobeyed

Ex: Civil Rights Move