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- Theory that seeks to explain human behavior by considering biological factors such as genes and hormones
- Search for genes/hormones that contributes to behavior such as homicide, alcoholism, adolescent stress
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| A way of categorizing people on the basis of their economic position in society, usually measured in terms of income or wealth |
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| A theory that explains human behavior and ideas as shaped mainly by learning. |
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| The perspective that each culture must be understood in terms of the values and ideas of that culture and not judged by the standards of another culture |
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| A shared sense of identity among members of a group based on heritage, language, or culture |
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| Judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture rather than by the standards of that particular culture. |
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| The perspective in anthropology that cultures are complex systems that cannot be fully understood without paying attention to their different components, including economics, social organization, and ideology |
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| A classification of people into groups on the basis of supposedly homogenous and largely superficial biological traits such as skin color or hair characteristics |
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| Inherited and cumulative change in the characteristics of a species, population, or culture |
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| Obtaining food available in nature through gathering, hunting, or scavenging |
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| The process by which organisms better adapted to the environment reproduce more effectively compared with less well-adapted forms |
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| Residence in permanent settlements such as villages, towns, and cities, which began with plant and animal domestication and intensified during the Neolithic era and the emergence of farming |
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| The preference for living in groups and interacting regularly with members of the same species |
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| Insiders' perceptions and categories, and their explanations for why they do what they do |
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| An analytical framework used by outside analysts in studying culture |
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| A firsthand, detailed description of a living culture, based on personal observation |
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| An aspect of fieldwork ethics requiring that the researcher inform the research participants of the intent, scope, and possible effects of the proposed study and seek their consent to be in the study |
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| A research technique that involves gathering verbal data through questions or guided conversation between at least two people |
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| Basic fieldwork method in cultural anthropology that involves living in a culture for a long time while gathering data |
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| A mode of livelihood that involves growing crops with the use of plowing, irrigation, and fertilizer |
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| The linked processes of livelihood, consumption, and exchange |
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| A form of livelihood involving temporary use of large areas of land and a high degree os spatial mobility |
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| A form of agriculture in which farmers produce mainly to support themselves but also produce goods for sale in the market system |
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| A mode of livelihood based on growing domesticated crops in gardens, using simple hand tools |
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A mode of livelihood based on keeping domesticated animals and using their products, such as meat and milk, for most of the diet
- Domesticated Animals
- Cattle, sheep, goats, llamas, donkeys, dogs
- Meat, milk, blood, wool, labor, manure
- Mobility: Nomadism and Transhumance
- Commonly combined with Cultivation
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| A form of livelihood that involves continuous use of the same land and resources |
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| The dominant way of making a living in a culture |
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| A system of transfers in which the goal is either immediate or eventual equality in value |
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| A mode of consumption in which people's demands are many and infinite and the means of satisfying them are insufficient and become depleted in the effort to satisfy these demands |
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| A category of a personal or household budget used to provide for consumption needs and desires |
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| An exchange of approximately equally valued goods or services, usually between people roughly equal in social status |
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| Exchange involving the least conscious sense of interest in material gain or thought of waht might be received in return |
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| An unwritten, culturally embedded rule that prevents an individual from becoming wealthier or more powerful than anyone else |
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| The buying and selling of commodities under competitive conditions, in which the forces of supply and demand determine value |
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| The dominant pattern, in a culture, of using things up or spending resources in order to satisfy demands |
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| The dominant pattern, in a culture, of transferring goods, services, and other items between and among people and groups |
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| A medium of exchange that can be used for a variety of goods |
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| A grand feast in which guests are invited to eat and to receive gifts from the hosts |
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| Something given with no explanation or thought of a return |
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| A form of exchange that involves one person collecting goods or money from many members of a group, who then, at a later time and at a public event, "returns" the pooled goods to everyone who contributed |
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| The formalized exchange of one thing for another according to set standards of value |
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| A system of transfers which one party seeks to make a profit |
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- No necessary path of dvlpmt in human societ
- Technologically less-complex societies were not at an "earlier" phase
- Against "armchair" anthropology
- Fieldwork first, generalizations later
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- Existence of distinct races
- Body determines culture
- White supremacy
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- Cultures must be studied in themselves, rather in relation to some universal standard
- Cultures are meaningful in their own terms
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- Autonomous aspects of human life
- None reducible to the other
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- Knowledge and citizencship
- Defended individual liberties, humanism
- Criticized racism and nationalism as divisive, oppressive, unscientific
- Criticized irresponsible science (spies)
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- Culture is a central part of human-environment relations/technology/social organization/economy
- Adaptation (change to better survive and reproduce)
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- Struggle for existence
- Differential fitness
- Variety inherited
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- Environment>Livelihood>Society/Culture
- Grasslands>Cattle>Social and Political Organization (segmentary)
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- Flat lands with clay soils
- Flooding/drought
- Agriculture unreliable
- Grasslands
- Rainy/dry seasons
- Three main products: fish, milk, grain
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- Cattle must be kept in dry areas
- Some agriculture in high areas
- Fishing in low areas
- Transhumance
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| Environment/Society/Culture (the Nuer) |
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- Sparse settlements, small, separate political groups: segmentation
- Concentrate during rainy months, disperse during the dry months
- Tribal identities over larger areas
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- Live in the arid Kalahari desert
- Semi-permanent villages of 10-30 people (follow water source)
- Intimate knowledge of environment and landscapes
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- Isolated
- Ancient livelihood
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- Response to current environmental and social conditions
- 1965: 80% were herders, farmers, or workers
- Archaeological evidence of pastoralism, metalwork in the Kalahari since 500 a.d.
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- Earlier anthropologists saw foragers as living on the "edge of survival"
- Unlimited wants; limited goods
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- Marshall Sahlins: "original affluent society"
- Limited wants; well adapted
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- Balanced
- Reciprocity: gift-exchange
- Redistribution (Potlatch:peace, safety)
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- Modern, capitalist society
- Buying and selling
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- Central governor
- Complex, hierarchical societies
- Tribute, taxes
- Potlatch
- Safety Net
- Peace
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- Sharing
- Foraging societies
- Give away/exchange
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- Basic assumptions:
- Self-interested rational individual
- Maximization (maximize their utility)
- Competition
- = Darwin
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| Neoclassical microeconomics |
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- Search for laws governing behavior (formalism)
- Social dynamics the sum of individual choices
- Assumptions: freedom of choice, perfect markets
- Good of individuals is good of society
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- Demand - Price relation is not simple
- Inelastic demand: food, water, basics
- Elastic demand: luxuries
- Veblen effect (conspicuous consumption)
- Values are cultural
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- Basic assumptions:
- Doesn't focus on the locus of human decision and choice
- Principal actors are social classes
- Domination/Power
- History
- Ideology
- Macroeconomics (capitalism)
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- Humans are essentially productive
- We produce ourselves and our society over the course of history
- Use Value, Exchange Value, Surplus Value
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- Fundamental groups definied in terms of production and surplus value
- Complex, agricultural, state societies (peasants, artisans, elite)
- Capitalist society (workers, capitalists)
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- Economy and society based on exploitation
- Unstable: classes at odds
- Ideology
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- Donham, Donald. 1999.
- Alexander Chayanov: neoclassical
- Peasant economy
- The household
- No wages; family
- Drudgery of labor
- Dependency Ratio = amount of work is related to the ratio of consumers to workers in the family
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| South Africa During Apartheid |
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- Society organized to identify and seperate "races"
- Racial groups definied legally by courts
- Racial groups separated geographically
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- Many grey areas
- Since 1994, apartheid no longer the legal form of government
- Social inequality, segregation persists
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- Historically, Spaniards and Indians
- Slavery in plantation zones
- Mestizaje
- Colonial classification system
- Each group had different rights and responsibilities
- Status tied to racial identifications
- Racial categories (castas) not recognized officially after independence
- Liberalism: everyone is a citizen
- The categories live on in language and perception (moreno, prieto, guar, genet bonita)
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