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| replicate genome (create chromatids) |
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2N=>2N, occurs in all dividing cells; 10% of cell cycle
1. Interphase – replication of genetic material resulting in sister chromatids
2. Prophase – chromosomes condense; spindles form
3. Metaphase – chromosomes align at plate
4. Anaphase – sister chromatids separate; shortest phase
5. Telophase – new nuclear membranes form (cleavage furrow forms); spindles disappear |
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| Plants lack centrioles and divide by cell plate not cleavage furrow |
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occurs in sex cells, homologous chromosomes pair at meta plate (tetrads), crossing over can occur, 2N=>N
- First Meiotic Division produces 2 daughter cells w/ N chromosomes w/ sister chrom
1. Prophase – chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material (crossing over)
2. Metaphase – tetrads align at plate (synapsis); each pair attaches to a separate spindle
3. Anaphase – homologous pairs pulled to opposite poles (disjunction) / distribution to the two daughter cells is random w/ respect to parental origin
4. Telophase – nuclear membrane forms around each nucleus
- Second division is very similar to mitosis. Note that only one becomes functional gamete in females |
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| X-shaped region b/w diff. chromatids of homologous chromosomes |
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| specialized group of proteins and DNA on a chromatid to which several spindle microtubles are attached; found within the centromere of each chromosome |
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| – pairing of homologous of chromosomes during meiosis I |
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| chromosomal segment turned 180degrees |
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| 2 nonhomologous chromosomes interchange genes (attachment of all or part of one chromosome to another) |
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| Exception to genetic code |
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| ***Mitochondria is an exception to the universality of the genetic code |
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– failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome
Turner syndrome – sterile female lacking X chromosome
Klinefelter Syndrome = 44 autosomes + XXY |
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production of offspring w/o fertilization
• Binary Fission – prokaryotes; DNA replicates, wall grows inward along midwall; ex paramecia, amoebae, algae, bacteria
• Budding – develops as outgrowth, forms smaller cell; ex hydra & yeast
• Regeneration – regrowth of lost body part; ex starfish and hydra
• Parthenogenesis – unfertilized egg to adult egg; ex bees and ants |
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| male = testes, female = ovaries |
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| in the testes, secrete testosterone |
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| sperm production in seminiferous tubules; head = nucleus & tail = flagellum |
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| membrane-bound structure at the anterior end of sperm cells; contains hyaluronidase (hydrolytic enzyme that causes the breakdown of protective surfaces of the egg) |
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| – helps neutralize the acidic vaginal secretions to enhance sperms’ ability to swim; also neutralizes seminal fluid (too acidic from metabolic waste of sperm) |
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| oocytes produced in ovaries |
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| – functional maturation of the spermatozoa while in the female, allows for egg penetration |
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| path of sperm SEVEnUP (seminiferous tub, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis) |
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| – fallopian tube opens to uterus (narrow end called cervix), cervix connects with vaginal canal |
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divided into follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation
• Follicular – FSH promotes development of follicle which secretes estrogen
• Ovulation- peak in estrogen=> LH surge=> ovulation (midway through cycle) => mature follicle bursts releasing ovum
• Luteal – LH induces follicle to develop into corpus luteum which secretes estrogen and progesterone (LH and FSH inhibited)
• Menstruation – If fertilized placenta produces (Human chorionic gonadotropin) hCG (estrogen + proges levels remain high) // If NOT fertilized, corpus luteum atrophies to corpus albicans (drop in estrogen + prog) and menstrual flow begins |
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| – development and maintenance of endometrial wall |
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| haploid & produce haploid gametes thru mitosis; sexually reproduce; ex mosses |
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| diploid but produces haploid spore by meiosis; ex ferns and angiosperms |
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flowering plants; flower is reproductive structure
• Stamen – male organ; composed of stalk-like filament & sac-like anther (produces haploid spores that develop into pollen)
• Pistil – female organ; composed of stigma (catches pollen), style, and ovary
• Sepals – green leaves cover and protect flower bud during early development
• Fertilization – 1 sperm nucleus + 1 egg nucleus => zygote => embryo 1 sperm nucleus + 2 polar nuclei => 3n endosperm
• Seed formation – Epicotyl (precursor of leaves), Cotyledons (seed leaves), Hypocotyl (develops into lower stem and root), Endosperm (feeds embryo), Seed Coat (develops from outer covering of ovule) |
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