• results from excessive ketones from breakdown of fats in blood
• occurs during starvation and acute diabetes

solution has lower concentration OUTSIDE of cell
cell may gain H20 and lyse

• cola, juice, drinks hydrate cells 

• programmed cell death
• intracellular enzymes destroy cellular structures
• cell phagatocyzed by local cells
• skin bw digits in fetus

• uncontrolled cell death
• due to injury or disease
• rattle snake bite

• abnormal size, shape, or arrangement of cells
• non-malignant
• neoplasms in breasts (can be cancerous)

increase in cell size

muscles increase in size when you lift weights

• tumor
• non-malignant
• invasive, not local
• can break off and metastasize 

cancer arising in mesenchyme-derived tissues

(connective tissue and muscle)

injury, wound, or infection that affects tissue over an area of definite size

ulcer in stomach

• transport escaped fluid from vasc syst back to blood

absorb digested fats (chyle)

in villi of sm intestine

chyle goes to blood

• main fighters of immune system
• found in RED bone marrow
• T cells
• B cells
• lymphoid macrophages
• reticular cells

manage immune response

some directly attack and destroy infected cells

• help activate t cells
• engulf foreign substances (phagocytosis)

network of cells that support other cells in the lymphatic system

• main structure of all lymph cells except thymus

• houses and provides proliferation site for lymphocytes
• funishes an ideal vantage pt for lymphocytes and macrophages

• tonsils
• thymus
• spleen
• lymph nodes
• Peyer's patches

largest L organ

cleanses blood of debris, bacteria, viruses, etc

• f(x)s mostly in early life
• inferior region of neck
• size decreased w age
• does NOT directly fight antigens

• around entrance to pharynx 
• removes pathogens inhaled in air and food

in wall of ileum in sm intestine

destroy bact there

• parasitic worms clog lymphatics
• edema results. can be in enormous proprtions. 

• malignancy of lymph nodes
• use radiation therapy

• any neoplasm of lymphoid tissue
• can be benign or malignant

• viral infection of lymphocytes
• symptoms: fatigue, fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes

• elargement of spleen due to accumulation of infectious microorgs 
• caused by leukemia, mono, malaria

• epidermis
• mucus membranes
• gastric juices
• saliva
• lacrimal fluid
• mucus
• nasal hair
• cilia
• sebum
• vaginal secretions

• acid matle: protects against pathogens, weak acid/bases
• low pH that inhibits bacterial growth
• keratin: protects from acids,alkalis, and bacterial enzymes

• kills microorgs
• concentrated HCl solution
• protein-digesting enzymes

• kills bacteria
• in saliva and lacrimal fluid

toxic to bacteria

at base of hairs

• engulf pathogens
• includes: monocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils

start in bloodstream as monocytes

travel around body to engulf foreign particles

• most abundant WBC
• phagocytize toxic material 

• protect against parasitic worms
• WBC

• large, granular lymphocyte
• can lyse and kill cancer cells and infected cells before adaptive systems activates
• non-specific
• direct contact w/ foreign particles
• induces target cell to undergo apoptosis

1. prevents spread of damaging agents
2. dispose of cell debris and pathogens
3. sets stage for repair

1. redness
2. heat
3. swelling
4. pain

• hypersensitivity response
• skin lesions and tearing
• usually begins befre 5yrs of age

sepsis

(septesimia)

• inflammatory response goes out of control
• too much fluid leaves bloodstream
• BP falls, organs shut down
• eventual death

• release histamine

• fluid containing clotting factors and antibodies
• causes local swelling

1. leukocytosis-neutrophils enter blood from RED bone marrow (increase in WBC count)
2. Margination-CAMs on neutro's bind to endothelial cells on capillaries and postcapillary venules
3. Diapedesis- neutrophils flatten and squeeze through capillary walls
4. Chemotaxis- neutros collect at site and get rid of foreign substances

• group of 20+ proteins that circulate blood in an inactive state.
• destroys foreign substances in the body

• abnormally high body temp
• pyrogens are secreted by leukocytes and increase body temperature
• heat denatures enzymes
• sequesters iron and zinc
• increases metabolic rate to speed repair process