• transportation of nutritive and excretory substances
• Regulation
• protection

Blood:

definition and facts

• highly specialized fluid connective tissue
• distributes, regulates, and protects
• 7.7% body weight
• avg person has 4-6L
• temp is 38˚ in thorax

• liquid part of blood
• 55% of blood volume
• B lymphocytes

• RBC, WBC, platelets
• 45% of blood volume

• aid in defense against microorganisms and infection
• sphirical
• nucleated
• granulocytes 
• agranulocytes

1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils

• phogocytize bacteria
• lobed nucleus

• helps detoxify foreign substances
• secretes enzymes that break down clots
• kills parasitic worms
• destroys antigen-antibody complexes

releases heparin (anticoagulant)

involved in inflammation response

monocytes

lymphocytes

develop into macrophages in lung tissue

phagocytize cells

• disk-like fragments (irregular shape)
• important for blood clotting
• seal small tears in blood vessels

• stoppage of bleeding
• vascular spasms
• formation of platelet plug
• coagulation 

constriction of damaged blood vessels (vasoconstriction)

slows down blood flow 

platelets form a plug to break down and release chemicals

takes about 1min for plug to form

• blood clotting
• transformed from liquid to GEL
• prothrombin activator formed

• converts plasma to a protein called protrhrombin
• thrombin catalyzes joining of fibrinogen molecules and fibrin mesh
• seals holes

• decrease blood flow to affected area
• increase production of RBC-->heart beats faster

• prevents formation of clots
• citrate or oxalate salts
• blood can be stored for ~35days
• contains heparin

anticoag used in transfusion of blood

has A antigens

has anti-B antibodies

can receive A, O

has B antigens

anti-A antibodies

can receive B, 0

has A and B antigens

has no A or B antibodies

universal recipient

has neither A nor B antigens

has anti-A and anti-B antigens

universal donor

can only receive O

• ~85% Americans are Rh+
• antibodies form when Rh- receives Rh+
• 1st transfusion ok--after body is sensitized.  
• hemolysis (bursting of RBC) occurs on subsequent transfusions

pale color

low iron or hematocrit

yellowish color

less 02-->faster heart beat

• relative proportion of types of leukocytes
• high levels of WBC could indicate infection
• high levels of eosinophis could indicate parasitic infection

complete blood count

(CBC)

counts of types of formed elements

hematocrit

clotting factors

Heart 

wall layers and location

• located in medastium
• epicardium
• myocardium
• endocardium

• aka visceral pericardium
• protects
• anchors
• prevents overfilling
• thin layer

• muscular contractions eject blood from heart chambers
• thickest layer

frequent in kids

usually fixes itself

exercise can cause it

• striated
• 1-2 nuclei per cell
• z disks, a bands, i bands
• short, thick, and branched
• interconnected cells
• no triads

• allow ions to pass freely from cell to cell
• allow trasmission of depolarizing currents across entire heart

co=HR*SV (stroke vol)

ex: 75bpm*70ml/beat=5.25mL/min

• avg adult has ~5L of blood
• fastest in fetus (140-160bpm)
• rate ^ w age
• females avg: 72-80bpm
• males avg: 64-72bpm

• automoic NS-extrinsic control of HR
• chem reg: epinephrine-^HR and contractility
• thyroxine: ^MR and heat production in body

• hypocalcemia: decrease HR
• hypercalcermia: ^HR-->interferes w/contraction. may lead to spastic contractions

hyperNAtremia-too much Na in blood

may block contractions

• HyperKalemia: too much potassium
• may lead to cardiac arrest

• veins: bld FROM heart
• arteries: bld TO heart
• capillaries: contract w cells of body. b/w veins and arteries

• almost all have 3 layers around lumen
• tunica interna
• tunica media
• tunica externa

• mostly circularly arranged smooth cells and elastin
• vasoconstiction
• vasodilation

protects

reinforces

anchors

blood pressure

gen facts

• greatest in arteries
• forces exerted by blood against capillary walls
• measured in mmHg

opposition to flow

amount of friction in vessels

1. viscosity-thicker blood. could indicate infection
2. total length of vessel
3. diameter-smaller diameter=more resistance

• measures arterial pressure
• checks brachial artery
• normal adult BP is 120/80 (syst/dias)

difference b/w systolic (higher #) and diastolic pressure

gen about 40mmHg

• BP is 140/90 or greater
• ^ strain on heart and vessels
• common in obese ppl b/c total length of bv is >
• cause: diet, age, race, heredity, stress
• smoking: nicotene causes vasoconstriction of arterioles
• stimulates hr to ^ CO

excessive levels of toxins or bacteria in blood

aka: blood poison

• clotted blood in tissues
• usually results from injury
• black and blue
• absorbed naturally, unless infected

continuous rapid heat beat >100bpm

caused by stress, fever, and certain drugs

persistant heart rate of <60bpm

caused by heart block, drugs, shock, ^ intracranial pressure

• causes unrestricted reproduction of immature leukocytes
• depresses formation of RBC and platelets
• causes anemia and a tendancy to bleed

• genetic
• erithrocytes in shape of a sickle
• may lead to anemia

• infectious disease transmitted by a virus in saliva
• primary affects adolescents
• causes fever, sore throat, enlarged lymph glands, and fatigue

• chemical that promotes formation of urine
• reduces blood volume
• ofter used to treat hypertension

• weakened veins that become stretched and swollen and leak
• common in legs b/c the force of gravity weakens valves and overloads veins

• inflammation of a vein
• caused by bacterial infection, trauma, or aftermath of surgery
• interferes w/ venous circulation
• frequently appears for no apparent reason

• low BP
• usually assoc w heart problems
• may be caused by aging, poor nutrition, or hormonal imbalance

• may develop suddently or gradually
• includes heart attacks
• cause is usually inadequate coronary blood supply, anatomical disorder, or conduction disturbances

1. structures for gas exchange must be thin-walled
2. " " must be differentially permiable
3. membranes must be kept moist so O₂ and CO₂ can be dissolved by h2o
4. rich blood supply must be present
5. surface for gas exchange must be deep so air can be warmed and moistened
6. must be an effective pumping mech. to replenish air

1. exchange gas in cellular respiration
2. sound production as air passes over vocal cords
3. assist in abdominal compression during micturation, defecation, and parturition
4. coughing and sneezing reflexes

Nose

• part on face+nasal cavity
• warms, moistens, and filters inhaled air
• resonating chamber for speech
• houses olfactory receptors

• pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium filters air here and elsewhee in the upper resp. passageway
• lysozyme is secreted here
• mucus
• sneeze reflex initiated
• paranasal sinuses
• pharynx
• larynx
• epiglotis
• cough reflex

• anitbacterial enzyme that traps dust and bacteria
• destroys bacteria chemically

• filtrates moved by cilia towards throat
• swallowed and digested in stomach

• air spaces in certain facial bones
• produces mucus, provides sound resonance, and lightens skull

chamber connecting oral and nasal cavities to larynx

both food and air pass through it

• voice box
• short passageway that connects pharynx to trachea
• passage for AIR into trachea
• prevents foreign objects from entering trachea

• flexible, tubular connection between larynx and bronchial tree
• pseudostrat cili colum epith filters air

• bronchi and branching bronchioles in lung
• connection b/w trachea and alveoli
• trachea has 2 primary bonchi--> branch to 2 tubes on L and 3 on R
• then ~23 orders of branching

microscopic, membranous air sacs w/in lungs

F(x)al unit of respiration

site of gaseous exchange b/w resp. and CV systems

• major organs of resp system
• located in pleural cavities in thorax
• contain bronch. trees, alveoli, and assoc. pulmonary vessels

• serous membrane covering lungs and lining thoracic cavity

• area w/ alveoli
• begins w terminal bronchioles in lungs
• on the term bronch are alveoli that for clustered alveolar sacs
• walls composed of squamous epithelial type 1 cells
• alveoli covered by pulmonary capillaries

respiratory membrane

• air-blood barrier
• formed at junction of alveolar and capillary walls
• gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion
• O2 to blood
• CO2 to alveoli

• cuboidal cells in walls of alveoli
• secrete sufactant that coats alveolar surfaces

alveolar macrophages

• dust cells
• crawl freely among internal alveolar surfaces
• removed lots of infectious microorg's
• dead macrophages are carried out by cilary current to pharynx at rate of 2mil/hr

• normal resp rate and rhythm 
• 12-15times/min
• newborn: 40-80bpm
• 5yr old 25bpm

• diaphragm and ext intercostals contract
• dia. moves DOWN and flattens
• rib cage is elevated and broadens
• sternum pulled forward
• intrapulmonary press drops 1mmHg
• air flows in until intrapul press is =to atm

• inspiratory muscles relax: diaph rises, rib cage descends due to gravity. sternum is lowered
• elastic lungs recoil passively
• intrapul press increases 1mmHg
• air flows out until intrapul pressure is same as ATM

500ml in both sexes

amot of air inhaled or exhaled at rest

amt of air that can be force inhaled after normal tidal inhalation

3100mL M

1900mL F

amt that can be forcefully exhaled after tidal exhalation

1200 M

700 F

amt of air after forced exhalation still in lungs

1200 M

1100 F

• max amt of air in lungs after max inspiratory effort
• 6000 M
• 4200 F
• TLC=TV+IRV+ERV+RV

• max amt of air that can be expired after max inspiratory effort
• VC=TV+IRV+ERV
• 4800 M
• 3100 F

• max amt of air that can be inspired after expiration
• IR=TV+IRV
• 3600 M
• 2400 F

• vol of air in lungs after normal tidal vol expiration
• 2400 M
• 1800 F
• FRC=ERV+RV

taking a deep breath

closing glottis

forcing air from lungs against glottis

-can dislodge foreign object from lower resp tract

air is forced through nasal and oral cavaties

clears upper resp tract

inspiration w/ short expirations

emotional response

sudden inspirations caused by spasms of diaphragm

sound occurs when air hits vocal folds of closed glottis

very deep inspiration w. mout wide open

ventilates all alveoli

infant respiratory distress syndrome

(hyaline-membrane syndrome)

• common resp. disorder of neonates, esp. premies
• alveoli of lungs are not developed sufficiently to sustain life until after 20wks
• responsible for 1/3 of neonatal deaths

• genetic disorder that produces persistant infection
• over-secretion of mucus that clogs resp. passages
• mucus provides site for airborne bact infect.
• clogs pancreatic ducts
• sweat glands don't f(x) properly

inhaling something into lungs 

ex: excessive mucus or vomit

mushroom-like benign neoplasms of nasal mucosa 

• may be caused by nasal irritation
• may block airflow

nose bleed

caused by many things: injury, high BP, or leukemia

when air enters pleural cavity surrounding either lung and causes lung to collapse

• caused by wound, penetration of broken rib, or disease
• hole can be repaired and lung can re-inflate 

• caused by rapid change from low to high elevation
• headache, shortness of breath, nausea, diziness
• severe cases can lead to death from pulmonary and cerebral edema

• depth and rate of breathing increased
• enhances alveolar ventilation
• flushes CO2 of out blood
• increased pH of blood
• person may become dizzy or faint

low level of CO2 in blood

breathing into ppr bag would increase level of CO2

cessation of breathing until CO2 stimulates respiration

sleep apnea-stop breathing when asleep

most wide-spread of all resp. diseases

no cure available. prob a mix of viruses

inflamm of larynx

produces hoarse voice and limits ability to talk

• inadequate delivery of O2 to body tissues
• many causes
• skin and nailbeds become bluish
• CO poisoning

• leading cause of death from fire
• CO is 200x easier to combine with hemoglobin than O2
• usually not detectable
• may cause reddened skin, confusion, throbbing headache

• accute inflamm and infection of lung tissue accompanied by accumulation of fluid (exudation)
• usually bacterial
• may be caused by a virus

• inflamm of pleurae
• usually assoc w/ some infection (like pneu.)
• pleural surfaces may become dry and rough
• too much fluid may be produced
• breathing may become painful and fluid may collect in pleural space
• can be chronic

COPD

(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)

• chronic bronchitis or emphysema
• patients almost always have a history of smoking

• difficult or labored breating
• get progressivelly more severe
• coughing and pulm. infect are common
• patients usually develop resp. failure

• affects ppl who are allergic to dustmites, roaches, cats, dogs, fungi
• causes swelling and blocking of lower resp tubes
• may be triggered by panic, cough, labored breathing etc.
• may have extensive pds w no symptoms

• caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis
• about 1/3 human pop is infected. most don't develop symptoms
• treated w antibiot. but some resistant strains are forming

• inhaled irritants lead to chronic excessive production of mucus
• cig smoking is 1˚ cause. air pollution may contrib
• inflamm and fibrosis of mucosa in lower resp passageways
• bact thrive in stagnant mucus
• frequent infections

• caused by breakdown of alveoli
• frequent cause of death among cigarette smokers
• may be hereditary
• increase size of air spaces and decrease surface area
• chronic inflamm leads to fibrosis and loss of elasticity of lungs
• leads to permanent barrel chest due to trapped air

• resp disorder caused by tiny particles of dust that get trapped in alveoli and cut hole in walls
• blood in alveoli
• happens to ppl in construction or open pit mines
• silicone in dust is sharp
• reduces O2 to tissues. incr HR. then death

carbon particles get in and obstruct ability to get O2

leads to increase HR then death

common in coal miners and welders

lung cancer

(COPD)

• caused by repeated inhalation irritation by substances such as cigarette smoke
• cancers of lip, larynx, and lungs are common in smokers over 50
• more than 90% of patients were smokers
• rate of cure is low
• most die w/in 1yr of diag. 7% survive 5yrs

1. chemotaxis: WBC use chem ques from microog to block it
2. ameboid movmt: towards microog
3. diapedesis: WBC leaving blood vessels to make contact w/ microorg

• neural regulation: (sec-min)
• baroreceptors-detect change in BP
• symp and parasymp control: vaso motor complex and vagalcenter

vaso motor complex

baroreceptor

• sympathetic control
• sends signal that there is a decr. in BP
• releases epi/norepi to vaso constrict blood vessels
• BP increases back to normal

vagalcenter

baroreceptor

• parasympathetic control
• signals incr in BP. releases Ach to cause vasodialation
• decr BP back to normal

Long-term Chemical Reg. of BP

ADH

• blood volume incr
• vasopressin. released when there is decr in BP
• targets kidneys and leads to incr in H2O absorption in blood vessel (incr BP and vol)

Long-term chem reg of BP

Renin

incr. blood vol to incr. BP

1. renin
2. angiotensinogen
3. angiotensin I
4. ACE
5. aniotensin II
6. aldosterone (hormone)
7. Na+ out
8. H2O out (osmosis)