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| Guess about particular phenomena |
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| hypothesis that has graduated because it is strongly supported by empirical observation. Unlikely to be altered |
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| the increase in frequency of genes that produce phenotypes that increase the likelihood that animals will survive and reproduce |
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| a deductive system of acquiring knowledge with the purpose of producing models of reality that allows useful predictions |
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Methodical Objective Rational Analytical Demonstrable
and not a static process but a vivid ongoing process |
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| the ability to use the process of scientific inquiry to think creatively about real-world issues, communicate those thoughts to others, and integrate them into your decision-making. |
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| Experiments should begin with a well-formed hypothesis; The goal of experimentation is to test the validity of the hypothesis; A hypothesis is useless unless a feasible experiment can be designed to support it or disprove it |
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| Also know as explaining variables, Intentionally manipulated by the researcher, Presumed cause or antecedent |
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| Also know as response variables, Something that might be affected by the change in the independent variable; A consequence of the independent variable |
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the most important feature of a good experiment
the attempt to minimize any differences between a control group and an experimental group other than the treatment itself |
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It must clearly establish mutually exclusive alternative explanations for a phenomenon.
It must generate testable predictions. |
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| The scientific method is a flexible, adaptable, and efficient pathway to understanding the world because it tells us when we must change our ideas. |
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1. all known living things are made up of cells.
2. the cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division.(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. all energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells. |
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| five characteristics of life |
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Cells and organization
Metabolism - conversion of energy
Information - genetic material
Replication
Evolution
Homeosasis |
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Various degrees of organization
Atoms -> Molecules -> Organelles -> Cells… |
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processes that allow organisms to grow and reproduce,
maintain their structures, and respond to their environments |
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Hereditary material (DNA) encoded in units called genes
It holds the information to build and maintain an organism's cells |
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new "offspring" individual organisms are produced from their "parents”
Almost everything an organism does contributes to one goal, replicating itself. |
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The change in genetic composition of a population over successive generations,
which may be caused by natural selection, inbreeding, hybridization, or mutation |
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| Theory of Chemical evolution |
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| Continuous input of solar energy was converted to chemical energy: Simple chemical compounds combined to form more complex carbon-containing substances that could copy itself. |
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| The chemical characteristics of an atom depend upon number of electrons in their outermost shells. Atoms are most stable and least likely to bond with other atoms when their outermost electron shell is full. |
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are strong bonds formed when two atoms share electrons.
in which atoms share electrons, are the strongest. |
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| Polar Covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds |
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| Share electrons with some distributed charge between the;, the weakest, involve the attraction between a hydrogen atom and another polar atom or molecule. |
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| When a electron jumps to a new atom and the atoms bond because of resultant charge difference;the next strongest, one atom transfers its electrons to another and the two oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, forming a compound. |
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| Early oceans and the importance of water |
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Definition
Water is vital because is an excellent solvent - agent for getting substances into solution, because of polar nature, good at pulling apart charged molecules,
Substances are most likely to come into contact and react as solutes |
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| polar molecules and ions that dissolve in water |
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| uncharged and non-polar molecules, that don't dissolve in water |
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| Characteristics of water from hydrogen bonds |
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Definition
The hydrogen bonds between water molecules give water several of its most important characteristics:
Cohesiveness
Adhesiveness
low density as a solid
the ability to resist temperature changes
broad effectiveness as a solvent |
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Carbon is the most versatile atom on Earth. Because of its four valence electrons, carbon can form many covalent bonds. Carbon-containing molecules can form an almost limitless array of molecular shapes with different combinations of single and double bonds.
The formation of carbon–carbon bonds was an important event in chemical evolution;The carbon atoms in an organic molecule furnish the skeleton that gives the molecule its overall shape |
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| Energy sources that started life |
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| Formation of formaldehyde (H2CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is the first step in chemical evolution and requires energy input. |
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are packets of light energy emitted by the Sun.
High-energy photons can break molecules apart by knocking electrons away from valence shells. The resulting free radicals have unpaired electrons and are extremely unstable and highly reactive. |
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Potential energy stored in chemical bonds Significant amounts of H2CO and HCN could form under the temperature and concentration conditions that were likely on ancient Earth.
These products have more potential energy than the reactants.
Thus: solar energy (energy of the Sun) was converted into chemical energy (in H2CO and HCN). |
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| Importance of molecular shape |
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Definition
3D configuration determines function
Determine likelihood of
bonding with other molecules
Determine tastes or smells
or hormone activity
Depend upon the shape in which the atoms are
linked together and the electrons in their
outermost shells! |
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| made from repeating subunits (monomers), during dyhdration synthesis, loss of h2o molecules |
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| When water is added breaking down macromolecules |
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Monosacchrides, primary an energy source; Starch: plants
Glycogen: animals
Cellulose: cells walls of plants
Chitin: tough carbohydrate that forms the external skeleton of arthropods (bugs, crayfish)
Carbohydrates are the primary
fuel for running all cellular machinery
and also form much of the structure of cells in all life forms.
consist of mostly
C, H, O (1:2:1)
primary function energy for metabolism
not all carbs are digestable cellulose
chitin |
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Definition
Fatty acids
Oleic acid (omega-9)
Structure membranes, energy storage, insulating
do not dissolve in water
long-term energy storage
membrane components
protection & insulation
certain hormones
Lipids are made primarily from atoms of C, H, O, just as carbohydrates are, but the atoms are in different proportions (a lot more H.) |
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Fats- long term energy storage and insulation
Sterols- regulate growth and development
Phospholipids- form membrane inclosing cells |
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| Head of molecule is Glycerol, fatty acids are tails of head |
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| Saturated and unsaturated fats |
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Definition
| difference is subtle, just a double bond in tails do to having only one hydrogen instead of two, as the rest do |
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important component of most cell membranes; influences membrane fluidity
can attach to blood vessel walls and cause them to thicken; arteriosclerosis
liver cells produce almost 90% of the circulating cholesterol from saturated fats in diet |
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regulate sexual development, maturation, and sex cell production.
estrogen influences memory and mood
testosterone stimulate muscle growth |
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| are the major component of the cell membrane, |
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Hydrophobic, composed of a single fatty acid linked to a long-chain alcohol
waxes have an important “sealing” function in the living world
almost all plant surfaces exposed to air, for example, have a protective covering made largely of wax
many birds have waxy coating on feathers |
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Aminoacids
Alanine
Structural, carriers, signaling, enzymes
proteins perform a variety of functions; however, all are built the same way and from the same raw materials |
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| comprised of amino group (nh3), carboxyl group (ch2) and varying side chain, there are twenty different side chains for the twenty different amino acids |
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| importance of amino acids |
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Definition
Unique combinations of 20 amino acids give rise to proteins, the chief building blocks of physical structures that make up all organisms.
Proteins are an essential dietary component
growth
repair
replacement |
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| Protein function and shape |
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Definition
| functions are influence by three dimensional shape, peptide bonds determine shape, |
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dehydration synthesis, between peptide bonds
proteins can be small:
peptides (up to ~ 50 aa’s)
polypeptides (up to
thousands of aa’s long)
proteins get their shape from
the order of aa’s and the R groups on those aa’s
with 20 aa’s, you can put
them together in a combination to do almost anything |
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Definition
help bring about chemical changes in a variety of ways, by creating an a receptive site for the components of a molecule that break the bonds and release the energy
Enzymes are proteins that help initiate and speed up chemical reactions.
They aren't permanently altered in the process but rather can be used again and again. |
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Nucleotides
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
intracellular energy transfer
informational molecules |
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| Nucleic acids store what and how |
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Definition
two types Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
both play central roles in directing the protein production in cells |
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The information in a molecule of DNA is determined by its sequence of bases.
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
CGATTACCCGAT
A always pairs with T
C always pairs with G |
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DNA is like a ladder in which the long vertical element of the ladder is made from a sequence of sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate molecules and rungs are nucleotide bases.
The sequence of nucleotide bases contains the information about how to produce a particular protein.
The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are macromolecules that store information by having unique sequences of molecules.
Both play central roles in directing protein production in organisms. |
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| acts as a middleman molecule, it takes instruction for production of protein from DNA, moves them to another part of the cell and directs the building of a protein |
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| Ways RNA differs from DNA |
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Definition
the sugar molecule of the sugar-phosphate backbone
what is the name of the sugar?
how is it different from the sugar in DNA
single-stranded
Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) |
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| Eukaryotic and prokaryotic |
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| has a central control structure called a nucleus which contains the cell’s DNA |
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| does not have a nucleus; its DNA simply resides in the middle of the cell |
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According to phylogeny, or evolutionary history, there are three domains:
Bacteria-pro
Archaea-pro
Eukarya – eukaryotic |
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| Features of prokaryotic cells |
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Definition
) Each prokaryote has one or more circular loops or linear strands of DNA. No nucleus membrane
In addition to the characteristics common to all prokaryotes, some prokaryotes have additional unique features. Many have a rigid cell wall, for example, that protects and gives shape to the cell. Some have a slimy, sugary capsule as their outermost layer. This sticky outer coat provides protection and enhances the prokaryotes’ ability to anchor themselves in place when necessary.
Many prokaryotes have a flagellum, a long, thin, whip-like projection that rotates like a propeller and moves the cell through the medium in which it lives. Other appendages include pili, much thinner, hair-like projections that help prokaryotes attach to surfaces. |
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| Additional features of prokaryotic |
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Definition
Most prokaryotic species have one supercoiled circular chromosome found in the nucleoid region of the cell.
The chromosome contains a long strand of DNA and a few supportive proteins.
In addition to the large chromosome, many bacteria contain plasmids.
Small, supercoiled, circular DNA molecules
Plasmids usually contain genes that help the cell adapt to unusual environmental conditions. |
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| additional notes of prokaryotic |
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Definition
All prokaryotic cells contain ribosomes, consisting of RNA molecules and protein, for protein synthesis.
Many prokaryotes have internal photosynthetic membranes
Some prokaryotes have membrane-enclosed organelles.The inside of many prokaryotic cells is supported by a cytoskeleton of long, thin protein filaments |
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| What organisms are eukaryotes |
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| all fungi plants and animals |
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| cells have compartments with specialized functions, DNA in nucleus, internal structures comparmentalized, larger than prokaryotes, usually ten times larger, cytoplasm contains specialized structures called organelles |
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Separation of incompatible chemical reactions
Increasing the efficiency of chemical reactions |
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| Difference in pro and eukaryotes |
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Definition
Bacteria and Archaea
DNA is Nucleoid (not membrane bound) plasmids common
Internal membranes only in photosynthetic species. Limited number of simple organelles
1-3 um
Eukaryotes
Inside nucleus (membrane), plasmids absent or rare
Large number or organelles, many types - many functions
10-100 um |
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| Functions of cell membranes |
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Definition
Just as skin covers our bodies, every cell of every living thing on earth, whether a prokaryote or a eukaryote, is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a two-layered membrane that holds the contents of a cell in place and regulates what enters and leaves the cell. Plasma membranes are thin (a stack of a thousand would be only as thick as a single hair) and flexible, and in photos or diagrams it often appears that the membranes resemble simple plastic bags, holding the cell contents in place. This image is a gross oversimplification, however. Membranes are indeed thin and flexible, but they are far from simple: a close look at a plasma membrane will reveal that its surface is filled with pores, outcroppings, channels, and complex molecules floating around within the two layers of the membrane itself (Figure 3-8 More than just an outer layer).
Functions:
cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signaling |
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| difference in lipid by layers in membranes |
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Definition
| either some or no unsaturated fatty acids, no equals lower permeability, less fluid, some means higher permeability and more fluid |
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| Structure of phospholipid by-layers in membranes |
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Definition
| hydrophilic head towards exterior, and hydrophobic tail towards interior |
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| Structure of cell membrane |
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Definition
| mosaic of proteins that regulate interior of cell |
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| Four types of membrane proteins |
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Definition
Receptor proteins bind to chemicals in the cell’s external environment and, by doing so, regulate certain processes within the cell. Cells in the heart, for example, have receptor proteins that bind to adrenaline, a chemical released into the bloodstream in times of extreme stress or fright. When adrenaline binds to these heart cells, the cells increase the heart’s rate of contraction to pump blood through the body more quickly. You have experienced this reaction if you’ve ever been startled and felt your heart start to pound.
Recognition proteins give each cell a “fingerprint” that makes it possible for the body’s immune system (which fights off infections) to distinguish the cells that belong inside you from those that are invaders and need to be attacked. (Note that carbohydrates also play a role in recognition.) Recognition proteins also can help cells to bind to adhere to other cells or molecules.
Transport proteins are transmembrane proteins that help large and/or strongly charged molecules to pass through the plasma membrane. Transport proteins come in a variety of shapes and sizes, making it possible for a wide variety of molecules to be transported.
Enzymatic proteins accelerate chemical reactions on the cell membrane’s surface (a variety of different enzymatic proteins exist, with some accelerating reactions on the inside of the plasma membrane and other accelerating reactions on the outside of the plasma membrane). |
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| Two theories of eukaryotic complexity |
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Definition
endosymbiosis theory
invagination theory |
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Definition
We can’t go back two billion years to watch the initial evolution of eukaryotic cells, but we can speculate about how it might have occurred.
One very appealing idea, called the endosymbiosis theory, has been developed to explain the presence of two organelles in eukaryotes, chloroplasts in plants and algae and mitochondria in plants and animals. Chloroplasts help plants and algae convert sunlight into a more usable form of energy. Mitochondria help plants and animals to harness the energy stored in food molecules.
According to the theory of endosymbiosis, two different types of prokaryotes may have come to have close partnerships with each other.
For example, some small prokaryotes capable of performing photosynthesis (the process by which plant cells capture the light energy from the sun and transform it into the chemical energy stored in food molecules) may have come to live inside a larger “host” prokaryote.
The photosynthetic “boarder” may have made some of the energy from its photosynthesis available to the host. |
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| cell memebrane folds in on itself and forms organelles |
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| : a biological process in which DNA is replicated; occurs in all organisms. |
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There are a total of four phases in the cell cycle: M phase and an interphase consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases
additionally, Gap phases allow the cell to grow large enough and synthesize enough organelles to ensure the daughter cells will be normal in size and function. |
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| contain a single long double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) wrapped around proteins. |
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| is a section of DNA that encodes a specific protein or RNA. |
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Definition
consist of DNA associated with histone proteins.
In eukaryotes this DNA-protein material is called chromatin.
During interphase, most chromatin is “relaxed” or uncondensed, forming long, threadlike strands.
After replication during S phase, each chromosome consists of two genetically identical sister chromatids attached at the centromere.
At the start of mitosis the replicated chromosomes condense |
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| Two components of primary DNA Structure |
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Definition
A backbone made up of the sugar and phosphate groups of deoxyribonucleotides.
A series of nitrogen-containing bases that project from the backbone. |
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| DNA has directionality—one end has an exposed hydroxyl group on the 3′ carbon of deoxyribose, and the other end has an exposed phosphate group on a 5′ carbon. |
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Definition
Watson and Crick proposed that two DNA strands line up in the opposite direction to each other, in what is called antiparallel fashion.
The antiparallel strands twist to form a double helix.
The secondary structure is stabilized by complementary base pairing:
Adenine (A) hydrogen bonds with thymine (T).
Guanine (G) hydrogen bonds with cytosine (C). |
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| Basic steps of DNA replication |
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Definition
DNA is opened and unwound Helicase
Proteins stabilize the unwound Single-strands
The leading strand is synthesized continuously
in the 5’____3’ direction DNA Polymerase
The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously:
RNA primer is synthesized Primase
RNA primer is extended as DNA DNA Polymerase
RNA primer is replaced by DNA
Okasaki fragments are linked DNA Ligase |
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