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1. Info is encoded in genes 2. located on specific regions of chromosomes 3. code for polypeptides 4. discreet units 5. RNA involved in making polypeptides 6. only 1.5% of DNA codes for p.p. 7. 8.5% considered junk DNA |
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Scraps left over from unsuccessful mutations Does not make polypeptides Mutations in these regions cause common diseases: diabetes, some cancers |
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1. Genes are fragmented, segments may even be on different chromosomes 2. Junk DNA may be responsible for the complexity of higher organisms 3. 74%-94% codes for various types of RNA 4. Many new types of RNA 5. RNAs are regulatory |
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25,000 not many more than fruit fly or roundworm |
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Interactions between genes yield complexity Human genes interact in about 650,000 ways 10 times more than fruit flies or roundworms |
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groups of similar cells and their intercellular material that have a similar origin in the embryo |
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Epithileal Tissue Characteristics |
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Definition
1. First name tells number of cell layers 2. Second name defines cell shape |
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column shaped longer than it is wide |
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Two subtypes of epithileal tissue |
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1. lining or covering 2. glandular |
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Covering and Lining Epithileum |
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Definition
i. Outer covering of external surfaces and some internal organs ii. Lines body cavity iii. Inside surfaces of the respiratory, GI tracts, blood vessels and ducts (endothelium) iv. Involved in the sense organs v. Tissue from which gametes develop |
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3 types of glandular epithileum |
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1. merocrine 2. holocrine 3. apocrine |
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merocrine glandular epithelium |
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Definition
A. Secrete products by exocytosis B. Sweat and salivary glands do this |
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holocrine glandular epithelium |
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Definition
A. Cell ruptures and secretion is released B. Oil glands do this |
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apocrine glandular epithelium |
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Definition
a. Top part of the cell pinches off b. Mammary glands do this |
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most abundant tissue in body cells are widely scattered tissue contains lots of intercelluar matrix |
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Functions of Connective Tissue |
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i. Protection (bone in the skull, ribs) ii. Support (internal skeleton) iii. Binding organs together (cartilage) iv. Separates structures (like skeletal muscle) v. Transports materials (via blood) |
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i. Cells called fibroblasts are most numerous (cell that makes a fiber) ii. Many different cells present iii. Embedded in a fluid intercellular matrix (fluid like molasses) iv. Many subtypes |
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AREOLAR connective tissue (loose) |
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Definition
i. fibers, white blood cells, and various cells involved in the immune response ii. Semi-fluid matrix iii. Continuous throughout the body iv. Present in: A. Mucus membranes B. Around blood vessels nerves and organs C. Beneath the skin |
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i. Specialized for fat storage (can be added but not gotten rid of)
ii. Located below the skin and around many organs iii. Reduces heat loss from the body iv. Major energy reserve v. Supports and protects some organs |
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i. Closely packed fibers that are regularly or irregularly arranged ii. Covers bone and many organs iii. Main component of tendons and ligaments |
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ELASTIC connective tissue |
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Definition
i. Composed of stretchy and branched fibers ii. A component of walls of arteries and of passages in the respiratory system (gives diastolic pressure in heart) |
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RETICULAR connective tissue |
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i. Web-like fiber system ii. Binds together and supports cells of many organs iii. Ex. Found in liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and smooth muscle |
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1. Capable of enduring stress 2. A dense network of fibers in a jelly-like substance 3. Found between bones 4. Forms parts of the nose and the respiratory system (rings in throat) 5. External part of the ear (pinna) & the eustachian tubes (inner ear to throat) |
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1. Fibers and mineral salts of calcium and phosphorous 2. Functions i. Support & protection ii. Movement iii. Calcium & phosphorous storage iv. Red marrow produces blood cells |
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1. Liquid connective tissue 2. Consists of plasma & formed elements |
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i. Straw colored fluid ii. Primarily water iii. Contains dissolved substances (gases, nutrients, enzymes, and hormones) |
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i. Red blood cells- gas transport ii. White blood cells- immune responses and allergic reactions iii. Platelets- blood clotting |
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1. cells are highly specialized for contraction 2. functions: i. movement ii. maintenance of posture iii. heat productions |
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1. what we normally think of as muscle 2. attatch to bones to make body movements 3. striated- striped 4. voluntary |
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1. found in walls of tubes or hollow organs 2. non-striated 3. involuntary 4. Functions: churn or move material through a tube |
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1. muscle of the heart 2. self-stimulating 3. striated 4. involuntary |
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Nerve Tissue Neurons and Nerve Cells |
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1. highly specialized for receiving stimuli 2. translating stimuli into nerve impulses 3. conducting those impulses to other nerves cells, muscle fibers, or glands |
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Nerve Tissue Supporting Cell |
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protect and support the neurons |
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A. External covering of the body B. Complex system C. Skin surface area about 20 square ft. on adult human |
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Functions of Integumentary System |
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Definition
1. Maintains body temp. (sweat glands, hair) 2. Protection (barrier between external and internal env.) 3. Stimulus perception (touch) 4. Excretion 5. Vitamin D synthesis |
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4-5 layers of stratified squamous epithelium 4 main cell types avascular but innervated; nerves but no blood vessels |
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4 main cell types of EPIDERMIS |
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Definition
1. keratinocytes 2. melanocytes 3. langerhans cells 4. avascular cells |
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a. make up 90% of skin b. produce keratin c. attached tightly to one another |
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a. about 8% b. produce pigment called melanin c. melanin contributes to skin color d. protects from UV radiation |
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a. aid in immune response within the epidermis b. develop in the bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis c. interact with helper-T cells d. easily damaged by UV radiation (tannin suppresses immune system) |
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a. located in the stratum basale of hairless skin (lowest layer) b. make contact with a tactile sensory neuron c. function in touch |
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1. stratum basale 2. stratum spinosum 3. stratum granulosum 4. stratum lucidum 5. stratum corneum |
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a. 1 row of cuboidal or columnar cells b. produces new cells called keratinocytes c. cells eventually migrate to the surface ( pushed up by cells dividing underneath) d. keratinocytes die & nuclei degenerate e. layer rest on basement layer which holds it to the dermis |
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a. 8-10 rows of polyhedral cells with spines on surfaces b. spines help support the layer c. keratinocytes take in melanin by endocytosis form the melanocytes |
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a. 3-5 layers of flattened cells b. contain granules of kertohyalin, a precursor to keratin 1. keratin is a protein 2. found in outer layers 3. protects against injury & microbial infection 4. waterproofs the skin |
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a. only found in thick skin of palms and soles b. 3-5 layers of clear, flat, dead cells with indistinct boundaries |
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a. most superficial layer b. 25-30 rows of flat, dead cells filled with soft keratin c. complete new surface every 1-2 weeks d. cells are constantly shed & replaced by cells from lower layers e. barrier against heat, light, bacteria & many chemicals |
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1. Composed of connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers 2. Contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, & glands 3. Thick in palms & soles & thin in eyelids |
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Papillary Region of Dermis |
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Definition
i. areolar connective tissue with fine elastic fibers ii. dermal papillae greatly increase surface area iii. meissner’s corpuscles of touch iv. dermal papillae in thick skin produce ridges in the epidermis (fingerprints_ |
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Reticular Region of Dermis |
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Definition
i. deeper portion of dermis ii. lower region contains (layer used to make leather) a. dense irregular bundles of collagen fibers b. coarse elastic fibers c. hair follicles d. oil glands e. ducts of sweat glands f. some adipose tissue iii. varies in thickness iv. connective tissue gives the skin the ability to stretch & to resume shape |
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slivery marks left behind after extreme stretching |
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Definition
1. Subcutaneous layer 2. Connects the dermis to the underlying organs 3. Contains Pacinein corpuscles or lamellated corpuscles 4. Composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue 5. Supplied with lymph, blood vessels & nerves |
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group of cells with specific function *sensitive to pressure |
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Where does skin color come from? |
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Definition
A. Due to combinations of: 1. Melanin (pigment of the epidermis) 2. Carotene (pigment of the dermis) 3. Blood vessels in dermis |
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1. Located in the stratum basale of the epidermis 2. Varies skin color from pale yellow to black 3. Number of melanocytes is same in all people 4. Amount of pigment produced varies |
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Exposure to Sunlight stimulates Melanin production... |
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Definition
i. melanin is synthesized from tyrosine with the aid of the enzyme tyrosinase ii. exposure to UV radiation increases enzyme’s activity iii. melanin production increases iv. both amount & darkness of melanin increase v. tans the skin |
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melanin protects body from |
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Definition
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skin cancer of the melanocytes |
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body's reaction to damage like a scab on a cut |
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most common form of cancer half of new diagnoses of cancer in western countries is skin cancer people with light hair, light eyes, and fair skin are most susceptible |
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i. reduce your exposure, especially between 10:00 and 3:00 ii. wear protection iii. wide-brimmed hats iv. large sunglasses v. sunblock, at least SPF 15vi. report new unusual changing moles |
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1. yellowish & orange pigments 2. precusor of vitamin A 3. Found in: stratum corneum fatty areas of dermis & subcutaneous layer |
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1. Epidermis is transluscent when little melanin & carotene are present 2. red color of blood shows thru yielding pink to redish skin color CAUCASIAN |
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sweat glands 1. eccrine 2. appocrine |
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a. most common b. occur over most of body; dense in palms & soles c. open thru pores onto skin d. produce watery secretion to cool body (perspiration) |
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H2O Salt Urea, ammonia, uric acid Amino acids Sugar Lactic Acid Ascorbic Acid |
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maintain body temp waste elimination |
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Appocrine Glands (sudiferous) |
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a. limited to armpit, pubic region, behind ears, & pigmented area around nipple b. open into hair follicle c. function @ puberty d. thicker secretion than eccorine e. musky odor f. stimulated during emotional stress & sexual excitement g. located in dermis or subcutaneous layer |
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oily mixture of fats, cholesterol, proteins, phermones, & inorganic salts lubricates & softens hair & skin inhibits bacteria associate w/& opens into hair follicle |
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1. protection & insulation 2. camouflage 3. tactile sense- detects stuff moving thru hair 4. ornamentation |
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Growth & Replacement of Hair alteredy by: |
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a. illness b. diet c. high fever d. surgery e. blood loss f. severe emotional stress g. childbirth h. drugs and radiation therapy |
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Definition
1. shaft (above skin) 2. root 3. hair follicle (sheath around hair) 4. bulb (enlarged region @ base) 5. papilla (indentation into bulb) 6. matrix (germ layer) |
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Associated w/ each Hair Follicle |
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a. arrector pili- smooth muscle attached to hair that adjusts height b. root hair plexuses- nerve attached to hair & detects displacement c. sebaceous gland |
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due to melanin synthesized in matrix variations in color of melanin |
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variation in melanin more iron & sulfur |
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decrease in melanin w/ age |
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air bubbles in shaft of hair |
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hard, keratinized covering over the dorsal tips of fingers & toes |
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1. protect tips of fingers and toes 2. pick things up 3. scratch 4. weapons 5. ornamentation |
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1. free edge- extends beyond digit 2. nail body- attached to digit 3. lunula- semi-circle @ base 4. nail root- inside digit 5. cuticle- skin attached to nail |
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