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| What are the three divisions of Genetics? |
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| Transmission Genetics, Molecular Genetics, Population Genetics |
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| A complete set of genetic instructions for any organism - all are encoded in nucleic acids (either DNA or RNA) |
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| also known as 'Classical Genetics' - it encompasses the basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next |
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| concerns the chemical nature of the gene itself: how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and expressed. |
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| explores the genetic composition of groups of individual members of the same species (populations) and how that composition changes over time and geographic space. |
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| organisms having characteristics that make them particularly useful for genetic analysis and about which a tremendous amount of genetic information has accumulated. |
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| suggests that specific pieces of information travel from various parts of the body to the reproductive organs, from which they are passed to the embryo |
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| Inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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| traits acquired in one's lifetime become incorporated into one's hereditary information and are passed on to offspring; example - musical parent = musical kid |
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all traits would be inherited from only one parent - from the father if the homunculus was in the sperm or from the mother if it was in the egg.
Homunculus = tiny adult.. |
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| offspring are a blend, or mixture, of parental traits - suggests that genetic material itself blends (like blue + yellow = green) |
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| all life is composed of cells, cells arise only from preexisting cells and the cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms |
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| the cells in the reproductive organs carry a complete set of genetic information that is passed to the egg and sperm |
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| have a nucleus, containing DNA |
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| has DNA, no nucleus though |
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| a basic unit of hereditary information -an inherited factor that determines a characteristic |
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| varient forms of a gene, arising through mutation- one or two or more alternate forms of a gene |
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| the set of genes or alleles inherited by an organism from its parent(s) |
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| the expression of the genes of a particular genotype |
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| structures consisting of DNA and associated with proteins |
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| contains genetic information |
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| Homologous pair (chromosomes) |
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| usually alike in structure and size, each carries genetic information for the same set of hereditary characteristics |
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| cells that have 2 sets of genetic information |
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| cells with a single set of chromosomes (only one copy of each gene) |
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| the natural ends (tips) of a linear chromosome, serve to stabilize the chromosome ends. |
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| the attachment point for spindle microtubules - appears as as a constricted region on the sister chromatids |
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| found above/below the middle |
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| the period between cell divisions, in which the cell grows, develops, and prepares for cell division |
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| the period of active cell division, includes Mitosis - the process of nuclear division, and cytokinesis - cytoplasmic division |
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| chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle forms |
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| Nuclear envelope disintegrates, and spindle microtubules anchor to kinetochores |
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| Chromosomes align on the spindle-assembly checkpoint |
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| sister chromatids separate, becoming individual chromosomes that migrate toward spindle poles. |
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| chromosomes arrive at spindle poles, the nuclear envelope re-forms, and the condensed chromosomes relax |
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| Cytoplasm divides; cell wall forms in plant cells |
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| consists of a single nuclear division and is usually accompanied by a single cell division (consists of two divisions) |
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| two haploid gametes fuse and restore chromosome number to its original diploid value |
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| a lengthy stage in which the chromosomes form homologous pairs and crossing over takes place |
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| the fusion of chromosome pairs at the start of meiosis |
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| a pair of homologous chromosomes |
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| Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate |
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| Homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles |
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| Chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and the cytoplasm divides |
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| the nuclear membrane re-forms around the chromosomes clustered at each pole, the spindle breaks down, and the chromosomes relax |
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| The chromosomes recondense |
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| individual chromosomes line up on the equatorial plate |
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| sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles |
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| Chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and the cytoplasm divides |
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| creating new combinations of alleles on a chromatid |
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| production of gametes in a male animal |
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| a cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall of a seminiferous tubule and and giving rise by mitosis to spermatocytes |
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| Spermatogonium that has entered prophase 1 |
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| an immature male sex cell formed from a spermatocyte that can develop into a spermatozoon without further division |
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| production of gametes in a female animal |
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| an immature female reproductive cell that gives rise to primary oocytes by mitosis |
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| oogonium that has entered prophase 1 |
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| One of the products of meiosis 1 in oogenesis; contains half the chromosomes but little of the cytoplasm |
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| a mature female reproductive cell |
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| diploid reproductive cells found in the male part of the flower (stamen) |
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| the smaller of the two kinds of spore produced by some ferns |
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| diploid reproductive cells found in the female part of the flower (the ovary) |
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| the larger of the two kinds of spores produced by some ferns |
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| one of the products of meiosis 2 in oogenesis; contains a set of chromosomes but little of the cytoplasm |
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| product of meiosis 1 in male animals |
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| one of the products of meiosis 1 in female animal; receives most of the cytoplasm |
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| an individual organism possessing two different alleles at a locus |
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| an individual organism possessing two of the same alleles at a locus |
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| a cross between parents that differed in a single characteristic |
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| the first generation of a cross (parents) |
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| the offspring from the parents in the P gerneration |
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| crosses in which the phenotypes of the male and female parents are reversed. For example, in one cross, a short male is crossed with a tall female. |
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| Offspring of the F1 generation in a genetic cross; the third generation of a genetic cross. |
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| each individual diploid organism possesses two alleles for any particular characteristic |
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| when two different alleles are present in a genotype, only the trait encoded by one of them - the dominant allele - is observed in the phenotype |
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| the likelihood of the occurrence of a particular event |
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| the probability of two or more independent events occurring together is calculated by multiplying their independent probabilities |
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| the probability of any one of two or more mutually exclusive events is calculated by adding the probabilities of these events |
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| which one individual of unknown genotype is crossed with another individual with a homozygous recessive genotype for the trait in question. |
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| the trait shown when the heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between the phenotypes of the homologous |
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| the trait or allele that is most commonly found in natural (wild) populations |
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| a cross between two individuals that differ in two characteristics - more specifically a cross between individuals that are homozygous for different alleles at the two loci (AA BB x aa bb); also refers to a cross between two individuals that are both heterozygous at two loci (AaBb x Aa Bb). |
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| Principle of Independent assortment |
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| Important principle of heredity discovered by Mendel that states that genes encoding different characteristics (genes at different Loci) separate independently; applies only to genes located on different chromosomes or to genes far apart on the same chromosome |
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| statistical test used to evaluate how well a set of observed values fit the expected values. The probability associated with a calculated chi-squared value is the probability that the differences between the observed and the expected values may be due to chance. |
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| a pictorial representation of a family history, essentially a family tree that outlines the inheritance of one or more characteristics |
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| the person from whom the pedigree is initiated - usually designated by an arrow |
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| mating between closely related people |
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| Specifications of sex (male or female). Sex determining mechanisms include chromosomal, genic, and environmental sex-determing systems. |
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| Chromosomes that differ morphologically or in number in males and females |
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| chromosome that is the same in males and females; nonsex chromosome. |
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| the sex (male or female) that produces two types of gametes with respect to sex chromosomes. For example, in the XX--XY sex determining system, the male produces both x bearing and y bearing gametes |
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| the sex (male or female) that produces gametes that are all alike with regard to sex chromosomes. For example, in the XX--XY sex determining system, the female produces only X bearing gametes. |
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| small region of the X and Y chromosomes that contains homologous gene sequence |
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| Sex determination in which the sexual phenotype is specified by genes at one or more loci, but there are no obvious differences in the chromosomes of males and females |
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| sex-determining system in which sexual phenotype is controlled by a balance between genes on the X chromosome and genes on the autosomes. |
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| ratio of the number of x chromosome to the number of haploid autosomal sets of chromosomes; determines sex in fruit flies. |
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| Human condition in which cells contain a single X chromosome and no Y chromosome (XO). Persons with turner syndrome are female in appearance but do not undergo puberty and have poorly developed female secondary sex characteristics; most are sterile but have normal intelligence. |
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| Human condition in which cells contain one or more y chromosome along with multiple x chromosomes (most commonly XXY but may also be XXXY, XXXXY, or XXYY). - persons are male in appearance butfrequently possess small testes, some prest enlargement, and reduced facial and pubic hair; often taller than normal and sterile, most have normal intelligence. |
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| Human condition in which cells contain three x chromosomes. A person with triplo-x syndrome has a female phenotype without distinctive features other than a tendency to be tall and thin; a few such women are sterile, bur many menstruate regularly and are fertile. |
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| Sex-determining region Y (SRY) gene |
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| On the Y chromosome, a gene that triggers male development; also known as the testis-determining factor (TDF) gene. |
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| sex-linked characteristics |
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| characteristic determined by a gene or genes on sex chromosomes |
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| characteristic determined by a gene or genes on the x chromosome |
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| characteristic determined by a gene or genes on the y chromosome |
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| Possession of a single allele at a locs. Males of organisms with XX-XY sex determination are hemizygous for X-linked loci, because their cells prevent damage from such stressing agents. |
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| Equalization in males and females of the amount of protein produced by X-linked genes. In placental mammals , dosage compensation is accomplished by the random inactivation of one X chromosome in the cells of females. |
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| Condensed, darkly staining structure that is found in most cells of female placental mammals and is an inactivated X chromosome. |
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| proposes that one x chromosome in each female cell becomes inactivated (a barr body) and suggests that which X becomes inactivated is random and varies from cell to cell |
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| Type of allelic interaction in which the heterozygote simultaneously expresses traits of both homozygotes |
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| refers to a genotype that does not always express the expected phenotype. Some individuals possess the genotype for a trait but do not express the phenotype |
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| percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that express the phenotype expected of the genotype |
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| degree to which a trait is expressed |
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| causes the death of an individual organism, often early in development, and so the organism does not appear in the progeny of a genetic cross. Recessive lethal alleles kill individual organisms that are homozygous for the allele; dominant lethals kill both heterozygotes and homozygotes |
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| presence in a group of individuals of more than two alleles at a locus. Although, for the group, the locus has more than two alleles, each member of the group has only two of the possible alleles. |
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| interaction between genes at different loci that affect the same characteristic |
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| type of gene interaction in which a gene at one locus masks or suppresses the effects of a gene at a different locus. |
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| masks or suppresses the effect of a gene at a different locus. |
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| gene that is masked or suppressed by the action of a gene at a different locus |
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| test designed to determine whether two different mutations are at the same locus (are allelic) or at difrerent loci (are nonallelic). Two individuals that are homozygous for two independently derived mutations are crossed, producing F1 progeny that are heterozygous for the mutations. If the mutations are at the same locus, the F1 will have a mutation phenotype. If the mutations are at different loci, the F1 ill have a wild-type phenotype. |
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| wo different mutations in the heterozygous are exhibited as the wild-type phenotype; indicates that the mutations are at different loci |
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| sex-influenced characteristic |
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| Encoded by autosomal genes that are more readily expressed in one sex. For example, an autosomal dominant gene may have higher penetrance in males than in females or an autosomal gene may be dominant in males but recessive in females. |
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| sex-limited characteristic |
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| Encoded by autosomal genes and expressed in only one sex. Both males and females carry genes for sex-limited characteristics, but the characteristics appear only one of the sexes. |
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| Inheritance of characteristics encoded by genes located in the cytoplasm. Because the cytoplasm is usually contributed entirely only by one parent, most cytoplasmically inherited characteristics are inherited from a single parent. |
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| Determines the phenotype of an offspring. Offspring inherits genes for the characteristics from both parents, but the offspring's phenotype is determined not by its own genotype but by the nuclear genotype of its mother. |
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| Differential expression of a genet that depends on the sex of the parent that transmitted the gene. If the gene is inherited from the father, its expression is different from that if it is inherited from the mother. |
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| Phenomena due to alterations to DNA that do not include changes in the base sequence; often affect the way in which the DNA sequences are expressed. Such alterations are often stable and heritable in the sense that they are passed from one cell to another. |
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| range of phenotypes produced by a particular genotype in different environmental conditions |
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| temperature-sensitive allele |
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| expressed only at certain temperatures |
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| phenotype that is produced by environmental effects and is the same as the phenotype produced by a genotype. |
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| discontinuous chracteristc |
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| Exhibits only a few, easily distinguished phenotypes. An example is seed shape in which seeds are either round or wrinkled |
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| continuous characteristic |
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| Displays a large umber of possible phenotypes that are not easily distinguished, such as human height |
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| quantitative chracteristic |
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| Continuous characteristic; displays a large number of possible phenotypes which must be described by a quantitative measurement. |
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| encoded by genes at many loci |
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| a single genotype influences multiple phenotypes |
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| multifactorial chracteristic |
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| determined by multiple genes and environmental factors |
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