attibutes, abilities, attitudes, values that an indiviudal beleive defines who he or she is 

influences preferences for playmates, activities 

describe themselves in observable characteristics - name, physical appearance, everday behaviors "I have brown hair" 

older kids have sense of what they are like (timid, shy, confident) 

warm parents = good self concept 

understand that they persist throughout time - can descrbie future and past events

Chinese parents = long stories about childs misdeeds, but with warmth, but stressed impact of misbehavior in others. integrate discipline social obligations.

Chinese see good self esteem as unimportant of even negative and self concept emphasizes social obligations 

Irish American parents don't mention misbehavior often and downplay seriousness 

children are enthusiastic and motivated when parents are encouraging and informing/helpful

children whose parents criticise give up easily when faced with challenge and express shame after failing 

empathy serves as a motivator of prosocial or altruistic behavior 

preschoolers rely on words to communicate empathetic feelings 

empathy doesn't always lead to acts of kindness - sometimes parents say "be kind" but don't follow through with action 

sometimes empathizing results personal distress 

empathy does NOT lead to sympathy 

sympathy are feelings of concern for anothers plight 

Kinds of play during early childhood 

nonsocial- onlooker, unoccupied, solitary 

parallel- plays near but not with other children with similar toys 

associative play- separate activities, but engage by excanging toys and commenting on each others behavior

cooperative play- play together, common goal = make believe play 

preschoolers: someone who "likes" you and with whom you spend a lot of time playing 

4-7 year olds = pleasurale play/sharing of toys 

not yet long term based on trust - varies from day to day and conflict to conflict "you're not my friend anymore" 

But does offer social support in awkward, lonely situatios 

generating and applying strategies to prevent/resolve disagreements 

kids who get along well with others are able to read social cues accurately, formualate foals to enhance relationships, and have effective problem solving strategies 

create new mutual goals showing awareness that how they solve current problems will affect the future of the friendship 

(information processing system) 

1. Psychoanalytic perspective - Frued, moral development complete at age 5/6

Kids act morally out of fear of punishment and loss of parental love 

Induction in which adult points out effects of misbehavior on others so child understands other perspectives, 

Learn through discipline

Parents must be sensitive to differences in children's personalities 

Empathy based Guilt is a motivator of moral action 

2. Social Learning Theory

no unique coruse of development

aquired through reinforcement and modeling

operant conditioning (reward/punishment) is not enough, only serves to provide temporary compliance 

Depend upon the warmth, responsiveness, competence, power, and consistency of parent

use time outs, explain ahead of time how to act, praise mature behavior 

3. Cognitive Developmental perspective 

kids are active thinkers about social rules 

make thier own moral judgements based on concepts they construct about justice and fairness 

Moral imperative to protect rights and welfare (no hitting) 

Social convention (table manners) 

Matters of personal choice (can I wear this shirt, do my hair this way) 

Moral are worse than social, still wrong when adults don't see

preschoolers adhere to these standards rigidly 

Ethnic Differences in Physical Punishment 

African Americans- good combo of warmth, teaching, talking nicely, and believe in disciplining physically. More culturally acceptable to physically discipline, parents don't see it as bad and so do it regularly but with love 

PP is highest among low ses ethnic minorities 

in Caucasian American families, PP is associated with adolescent agression and antisocial behavior, because parents are acting out as a LAST reserve and see it as bad to PP thier children. this is not true for AA's (who do disapprove of yelling, cursing at children)

Proactive= acts to fulfill need or desire, unemotionally attack person to acheive a goal 

Reactive = angry defensive response to provocation or blocked goal, meant to hurt 

Physical = harms through physical injury 

Verbal = threats, name calling

Relational = manipulation, gossip, 

boys more physically aggressive due to androgens and tempermental traits 

girls more verbally and relationally aggressive 

gender role conformity- girls physical aggression drops of sharply when becoming aware of gender stereotypes 

social learning means - actions turn to beliefs, model after a male, see yourself as a male and vice versa 

Cognitive development - knowledge of gender influences actions and gender stereotyped behaviors 

boys are genetically primed for dominance, females for intimacy responsiveness and cooperativness 

prenatally administered androgens increase active play,suppress maternal caregiving in male and female mammals 

Sex hormones affect play styles 

girls exposed to high levels of androgens exhibit more masculine behaviors 

parents - prefer kids play with gender appropriate toys, especially dads 

Teachers- give girls more encouragement, harsher with boys, expect boys to misbehave more than girls 

Peers - play only same sex partners, more gender typed 

boys are especially intoerant of cross gender play 

More positive evaluation of members of ones own gender 

*african american and latino girls more assertive and independent than caucasian american girls 

television- females are young, attractive, caring, emotional, seen in romantic contexts.

males are dominant, powerful 

Gender Identity 

Androgyny 

Gender Constancy 

GenderSchema 

1. sense of self as man or woman 

2. scores high on both feminine and masculine personality characterisitcs ( sensitive and assertive) 

3. reaches a full understanding of thier sex, biologically, including the idea that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and activities change 

4. information processing to gender typing, combines both social learnin and cognitive development 

explains environmental pressures and cognitiions working together to shape gender role 

kids pick up stereotypes and organize experiences into masculine and feminine categories 

different parenting styles give different levels of 

1. acceptance and involvement 

2. control 

3. autonomy granting 

>>>>

Authoritative - cognitive, emotional, social competence warmth, explanantions, reasonable demands 

Authoritarian - cold, rejecting, degrading of the child, forces, uses punishment, makes decisions for child, rarely listens to thier point of view 

Permissive -warm, overindulgent, inattentive, few or no demands, permits child to make decisions before ready 

Uninvolved - emotionally detached, withdrawn, makes few or no demands 

1. ·      Authoritative – upbeat mood, self-control, task persistence, cooperativeness, high self-esteem, social and moral maturity

2. ·      Authoritarian – anxious, unhappy, low self-esteem and self-reliance, react with hostility, resort to force, high rates of aggression, dependent, overwhelmed, poor academic performance, commit fewer antisocial acts

3. permissive - impulsive, disobedeint, rebellious, overly demanding, dependent on adults, less task persistence, poor school achievement, antisocial behavior 

4.

4. 4. Uninvolved - disrupts all aspcect of development- poor emotional self regulation, school acheivment difficulties, antisocial behavior 

Chinese/Western/Hispanic/African American 

parenting styles 

chinese - controlling, less warm because withhold praise, use affection concern induction and other reasoning oriented discipline as much as american parents do, but more shame with misbehaving child 

Hispanic families - firm insistence on respect for authority paired with warmth

Low SES AA expect immediate obedience 

factors within the family 

-challenging children become target of abuse 

-sick, premature, developmentally challenged children morel likely to be targets of abuse 

-maltreating parents are less skillful in handling discipline and getting kids to cooperate 

- stress, low income, low education, unemployment, alcohol&drug use, marital conflict etc. 

Factors with the community 

- abusive parents isolated from social supports 

- social isolation, live in unstable rundown, provide links between family and community,

- have no one to turn to in times of need 

Factors with Culture 

- cultural values, laws, and customs and society's approval of physical force and violence to solve problems 

- US still allows corporal punishment in schools 

Physical growth in Middle Childhood (compared to infancy and toddlerhood) 

- continues at a slow regular pace like early childhood 

- at 6- north american child weighs 45 lbs and 3.5 ft 

- after 6, 2-3 inches are added and 5 lbs every year

- 6-8 girls are shorter and lighter than boys 

- at 9, boys are shorter than girls 

- girls have more body fat, boys have more muscle 

- after age 8, girls accumulate fat at a faster rate 

Lower portio of body grows fastest( legs) 

worldwide = 9 inch gap b/w smallest and largest 8 yr old 

shortest = south america, asia, pacific island, africa, burmese, thai, vietnamese, ethiopian, bantu 

Tallest = australia, northern central europe, canada, US, chech, dutch, latvian, norwegian, swiss, african 

apply growht norms carefully to nations with high immigration rates/diversity 

- heredity and enviroment influence growth

- body reflects evolutionary adaptations 

   - long lean for hot regions

  - short stocky in cold artic ones 

tallest = smallest countries with more resources, low infectious diseases 

small children = underdeveloped regions, poverty, hunger, disease 

when families move from poor to wealthy, children grow taller and longer legs 

 More on growth 

-better health and nutrition = healthier, more developed kids 

-Middle childhood- kids are more flexible because bone broaden, lengthen, ligaments not attached firmly to bone + increasing muscle strength = more desire for physical exercise, 

-nightime growing pains, stiffness, aching in legs common

- low IQ, poor motor coordination, innattention 

- greater fear to stressful situations, higher heart rate, more cortisol in blood stream

- deficient diet alters production of nuerotransmitters in brain, disrupts psychological functioning 

- malnutrition from infancy/early childhood on = permanent physical/mental damage 

- 32% of US children and adolescents are overweight

17% are OBESE 

- growth stunting, undernoursihed early = likely to gain excessive weight in childhood 

-stunted end up more overweight than non stunted individuals 

- children with mothers who SMOKED during pregancy areat risk for obesity 

- malnourished body establishes a low basal metabolic rate, which endures after good nutrition is restored (slow metabolism) 

- malnutrition disrupts appetite control center in brain, causing kids to overeat when food becomes plentiful 

-at least one obese parent

-low SES families

- infants who gain weight too fast, poor feeding habits 

-unhealthy family eating habits, high calorie junk food, rewarding with food

-Food cues; movies, time of day, sight, taste, smell rather than hunger and need to eat 

-less physically active individuals 

-too much time watching TV 

- malnourished in younger years (see card before) 

- near sightedness MYOPIA, children spend more time reading, writing, using computer, doing other close work 

- Nocturnal enuresis: bedwetting during night 

- heredity, identical twins more likely to both have it than fraternal so genetic. 

- failure of muscular response to inhibit urination 

- hormonal imbalance that permits too much urine to accumulate during the night 

- asthma, bronchial tubes are highly sensisitve 

cold, infection, excerise, allergies, emotional distress, mucus, contract, leading coughing, wheezing, serious breathing difficulties  

Two major causes of injury during school 

- motor vehicles

- bicycle accidents 

- pedestrian injuries from dart-outs,disobeying traffic signals or rules 

- Flexibility 

-Balance 

-Agility- dance, cheerleading, soccer dodging 

-Force - throwing, kicking harder, running faster, jumping farther 

improvement in processing and reaction time are related to improved motor performance 

younger kids have difficulty with rapid response skills (swinging, batting)

react to relevent information only increases during middle childhood 

steady gains in reaction occur with 11 yr olds respond twice as quickly as 5 yr olds 

- age 6, can print alphabet, first and lastnames, numbers 1-10 with clarity 

- use whole arm, large strokes for writing - not yet just fingers and wrists 

- uppercase letters first before harder lowercase 

-legibility of writing increases as kids produce accurate letters with uniform height and spacing 

- increase in organization, detail, representation of depth 

- copy two D shapes

epth ues make distance object smaller than near ones 

9-10 years, 3-D images arise, diagonal, converging lines 

school age kids depict objects in considerable detail and relate them to one another as part of an organized whole 

- girls are better with fine motor skills; handwriting, drawing, and some gross motor skills; balance, agility 

- boys out perform in throwing, kicking, forceful 

-boys have more muscle mass but the reason is more so social norms - boys play sports, team sports, play sports with friends regularly 

-parents hold higher sports expectations for boys 

-girls not as confident in thier sports abilties 

- people beleive that the sports world should adjust to involve boys and girls equally, more media to womens sports 

- perspective taking, understand roles of several players, 

-emotional and social development 

-games become contests of ability, so kids learn about cooperating, competetiveness, winning, and losing 

-kids understand why rules are necessary/which ones work well and which don't 

preschool - middle childhood

evolutionarily - fighting skills and development  

helps kids form dominance hierarchy - ordering of a group that predicts who will win when conflict arises so that hositility decreases (among boys) 

- safe context for assessing strength of peer before challenging them 

- 7 to 11 yrs. 

- thought is now more logical fleible and organized than during early childhood 

1. Conservation- pass conservation tasks, water to cup = Operations ofm mental actions that obey logic!! Can focus on several aspects of a problem and relate them 

demonstrate reversibility, think through steps, then go back and do it backwards. Recall. 

2. ability to Classify  and order objects, collections of rocks, stamps, etc. stickers. 

3. Seriation- order items with length and height, seriate mentally = transitive interference (stick a is bigger than b, b is bigger than c, is a bigger than c?) 

4. Spatial Reasoning - cognitive maps, use landmarks, familiar large scale spaces, not always accurate. US kids drive more so have less landmarks bc they see less. Indian kids walk so include more things in their maps 

1. can think in organized logical fashion when dealing with CONCRETE info perceived DIRECTLY. bad with abstract ideas 

2. concrete operational tasks are solved in a stepwise fashion

3. Continuum of Acquisition, gradual mastery, workout each logic of problem separately 

Tribal villages - development is delayed 

School promotes mastery of piagetian task, those in school longer do better with transitive interference 

people who learn through experience are better at tasks needed later in life- weaving in mexico 

increase in speed and capacity -

 --need less time to process info on cognitive tasks 

-- working memory - digit span, they can remember 5 digits at age 7, and 7 digits at age 12

Gains in Inhibition - 

-- ability to control internal/external distracting stimuli

--prevent minds straying to irrelevent thoughts 

-selective, adaptable, planful strategies to remember/imrpove memory and attention 

-improves sharply between 6-10 yrs 

-older children can flexibly adapt attention to situational requiremnt (color to shape experiment

-Production Deficiency - preschoolers rarely engage in attentional strategies, fail to produce strategies when they could be helpful

-Control Deficiency - young children sometimes produce the strategies, but do not use consistently 

-Utilization deficiency-  use the strategies, but performance just does'nt improve 

-Effective strategy use- use the strategies constistently and see progress and improvement  

Planning -->plan out before acting. grocery store/shopping example (follow lsit, plan out route to do it quickest) 

-rehearsal, repeating info to yourself 

-organization- grouping related items together to improve recall 

- elaboration, connecting two objects, sharing a meaning so that meaningful chunks can be easily recalled (fish and pipe = fish smoking a pipe)

Whole Language approach- from the beginning, kids should be exposed to text in COMPLETE forms so they can appreciate the communicative function of written language ie, stories, poems, letters etc. keeping reading meaningful

vs. 

Phonics Approach - the basics for translating written symbols into sounds. only after mastering this should they move on to harder material 

solution: research says both together works best. 

Two approaches to teaching math: 

1. drill and repitition 

2. underlying math concepts 

both approaches work best, children learning by rote don't understand why/cannot apply skills  and children with many opportunities to experiment wiht problem solving appreciate the reaon behind the strategy and don't make mistakes

1. Stanford binet and

2. Wechsler intelligence scale for children IV- 6- 16yr olds 

1. Analytical - informatino processing- applying strategies, acquiring taks relevant and metacogntitive knowledge 

2. Creative- solve novel problems, make processing skills automatic to free working memory/complex thinking 

3. Practical - application in everday situations 

defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operation- 8 different independent intelligences 

- each intelligence has a unique biological basis, distinct course of development, different end state performances 

= Linguistic, Logico mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily kenesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal

      (ex) naturalist most likely to be a good biologist, intrapersonal = counselor, knows inner feelings) 

set of emotional abilities, ability to process, adapt to emotional info

measured by tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage thier emotions and be aware of other's emotions 

Research that supports Heredity contributes to IQ 

and 

Research that supports environment conbtributes to IQ

1. IQ scores of twins are more similar than those of fraternal (50% shared genome) twins 

2. Adoption studies show that child of low IQ parents adopted into rich environment show an IQ rise compared to nonadopted chilren who remain in economically deprived families 

**The secular trend --> generational rise in avg IQ in both indurstrializ nation and developing world support role of environment becuase of improvd nutrition and education -

so environment plays a large role in increasing IQ 

Communication styles - 

african american famiies ask questions with a number of answers to it "what's that like" instead of white family questions with right/wrong answers "what is the book about?" 

Black children have complex communication skills at home,(more subective)  but are unfamiliar with the "right/wrong" styles that schools use (more objective) 

Different amounts of knowledge - different words mean different things in different cultures 

Stereotype threat- fear of being judged on basis of negative stereotype, triggers anxiety, interferes with performance 

IQ tests are biased, in some opinions 

undermines test taking in kids and adults 

when told its a test, people did worse

when not told a test, people did better 

Children are conscious of stereotypes - "I'm bad a tests because ..." 

kids interested in riddles and puns show an interest and appreciation for multiple meanings of words and development of language for other purposes, ie humor. 

characteristic of middle childhood age children 

SOME people beleive time spent communicating in native tongue detracts from english language acheivement 

OTHERS note that providing insturctuon in native tongue lets minority children know thier heritage is respected and ALSO they can understand more material in class 

PRESENTLY, US favors english instruction only...but in classrooms where both languages are integrated, minority children are more involved/participate more 

Small classes scored higher in reading and math 

Regular sized (20-25) were worse, and there was no change when a TA was added 

Small classes predicted greater likelihood of graduating hgihschool and higher achievement from 4th-9th grade 

Why do student in finland and Asian Countries perform better academically than americans? 

More challenging instruction, more high level reasning focus and critical thinking, less "fact absorption" 

US is less fair in quality of education to minority/ethnic groups - equal opportunity for all in Finland 

Finland has no national testing system, replaced with curricula, teaching practices, assessment for cultivating,intiative, problem solving, creativity. 

Teachers are more highly trained, more highly paid 

Asian - success in school is a Moral Obligation, parents devote more time helping kids with homework, show kids that anyone can do well when they WORK HARD at it 

US is more about innate ability  

Psychological Conflict of Middle Childhood 

Erickson - Industry vs. Inferiority 

- comibination of expectations from adults and children's drive towards mastery sets the stage for conflict 

- conflict resolved when experiences lead children to develop a sense of competence 

This period in time leads down two paths- Industry, becoming skilled at things with the entrance into public schooling and 

Inferiority, the danger of becoming pessimistic and lacking confidence in your abilities 

Academic Competence 

Social Competence 

Physical/ athletic 

Physical Appearance - Correlated MOST STRONGLY with overall self worth and self esteem 

- preschoolers- HIGH self esteem 

- once ener school, comparing to peers, self esteem decreases 

-firstfew years of elementary school = decline in self esteem due to receiving more feedback about performance, increased judgement 

- FOURTH GRADE = RISE in self esteem 

self concept - describe themselves "extremely" "really good" "really bad" at this,that, in COMPETENCIES instead of simple behaviors "I'm really bad at cello" as oppose to "I play cello" 

Authoritative Parenting allow for children to feel especially good about themselves

Warmth and Positive parenting communicate to child that they are competent and worthwhile 

Mastery Oriented - kids attribute thier success to trying hard, and can improve their performance by trying harder, seeking out help, finding new strategies 

Learned Helplessness - kids attribute failure to lack of ability, and any successes they have come from LUCK. because of this, they haven no motivation to try hard. 

Entity Theory - 

Fixed intelligence, Performance centered- if succeed/ace a test, increases confidence in intelligence, if high in confidence, mastery oriented they persist and work harder. If LOW in confidence = giving up, LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 

Incremental Theory - 

Malleable Intelligence, level can change up or down with how much you try. LEARNING CENTERED, if you learn, increases confidence 

doesn't matter if you're confidence is low or high, you still persist and try harder MASTERY ORIENTED 

- encouraging learned helplessness kids that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort 

- give kids tasks that are difficult enough to experience failure, then provide feedback that encourages them to keep going and trying, which leads to eventual success, followed by more positive feedback "you tried so hard and you did it!" 

-capacity to imagine what others may be thinking and feeling 

Selmans: 

- 1. (3-6yr olds) children recognize that others have different thought and feelings from thier own, but sometimes confuse the two 

2. (4-9 yrs old) understand different perspectives 

3. 7-12 can step into each other's shoes and imagine if it were them. 

4. 10-14 after that, kid undrstands the third impartial party can have a point of view of a two person situation 

5. 14 and older, third party perspective taking can be influenced by broader societal values 

How do Researcher assess peer acceptance 

- four categories of kids 

peer acceptance refers to likability. Researchers use self reports to measure social preferences, ask kids to identify classmate whom they like very much 

1. Popular children - get many votes 

2. Rejected Children - get many negative votes 

3. Controversial Children - gets lots of votes that are both positive and negative 

4. Neglected Children- rarely ever mentioned, not noticed 

1. Contrary to popular belief, they are NOT spoiled and in some ways they have advantages over kids with siblings 

2. Have higher self esteem and motivational to be better and attain high levels of education 

3. Only children have just as many close high quality friends 

4. tend to be less well accepted in peer groups  

-Gay parents are just as committed and effective at child rearing as heterosexual parents are 

-children don't differ in mental health, peer relations, sexual orientations, or gender identity

-Children of Gay couples experiment for a time with partners of both sexes 

- teasing and bullying is not that common because parents and children carefuly manage the info they reveal to others 

single mother home = display adjustment problems with economic hardship/living in run down neighborhoods.

They lack father's warmth and involvement- achieve less well in school, engage in antisocial behavior 

Child is at greater risk for conduct problems when mother pairs up with antisocial father, than if the mom had just raised the child alone 

- AGE: kids at dfferent ages react differently. 

     preschoolers blame themselves, fear that parents will abandon them, display anxiousness, fear, anger 

     Oldest child takes on responsibilty too much, withdraws from family if these responsibilities are too much 

School aged kids react strongly, experience depression, poor school performance, running away, early sexual activity 

Tempermant: 

-difficult children become worse, easy children cope more effectively

Sex:

-girls respond with internalizing reactions, crying, self criticism, withdrawal.

-boys have serious adjustment problems 

-both are demanding and attention craving 

After TWO YEARS OF DIVORCE: kids tend to score slightly lower in academic achievement, self esteem, social competence, emotional and behavioral adjustment 

Effective parenting. How well paent handles stress and shields child from family conflict, uses authoritative child rearing 

more warmth and contact: girls need good relationship with father, boys too, girls will refrain from sex, boys will be psychologically better overall 

also presence of caring extended family helps 

High conflict family. get outtt. 

- two previously divorced adults, sharing sexual relationship/residence outside of marriage 

-kids in these situations have more problems, poor school performance, trouble coping

Kids view the step relative as an "intruder" 

older children and girls have more trouble with this 

variables affecting outcome: which parent forms new relationship, age of child, sex of child, complexity of blended family 

-when moms enjoy thier work, AND remain committed to parenting, = higher self esteem, positive family peer relations, less gender stereotyped beliefs, better grades 

- Girls especially profit from the image of female success 

personality: easygoing, high IQ, good self esteem, persistence in the face of challenges, pleasure in mastery, good emotional self regulation 

family: warm, trusting relationships, authoritative parents, 

positive discipline, avoidance of corecive tactics, supportive siblings 

school - good teachers, helpful, encouraging, lessons in tolerance and respect, codes against bulying, high quality after school programs 

Community- good programs, stability of neighborhood residents, services, youth groups 

Early Childhood - intiative and guilt 

Middle Childhood- industry and inferiority 

cognitive development in PRESCHOOL = PREOPERATIONAL 

- these kids are unable to carry out conservation of number and liquid tasks 

CRITICISM -  3 yr old CAN do it when using familiar examples, ie playdough 

Private Speech,(talk to themselves while playing) 

Zone of Proximal Development(is it something that they are ready to do, capable of doing),

Scaffolding 

difference between recognition and recall 

Thoery of Mind (mean monkey game)