Situational Theories

Explains leader effectiveness in different situations. The elements that are considered in situational theories are how the leader and followers interact and how the work is structured. Theories that fall into this:

Blake - Mouton Managerial Grid, Path-Goal theory, Hersey Blanchard Theory

Fredrick Herzberg: Motivation/Hygiene Theory (1959)

Leadership Styles

Six Styles

Visionary - Mobilize people toward a vision Coaching - Develop people for the future

Affiliative - Create emotional bonds & harmony Democratic - Build consensus through participation Pacesetting - except excellence and self-direction Commanding - Demand immediate compliance

U - Shaped - Style Seating

Collaborating training situations

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Conference - Style Seating

Conference style equal status employees lead by a facilitator

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Chevron - Style Seating

Interacting with an instructor & each other

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Banquet - Style Seating

Trainees taking part in small group discussions & interacting with each other

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Classroom - Style Seating

Best for training for listening to presentations using manuals or handouts, and taking notes.

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Theatre - Style Seating

Best for training when lectures, films, or video presentation are used. accommodates the larget # of people in any space.

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Process Control Chart

Stratification Chart

Cause and effect diagram

Pareto Chart

Positively Accelerated Learning Curve

Negatively Accelerating Learning Curve

Plateau Learning Curve

S-Shaped Learning Curve

Community of Practice (COP)

ADDIE

Training Method

Analysis- Who? What? When? Design- address learning styles, ideas for motivation Development- Create materials Implementation- Give the presentation Evaluation- Examine success.

Subject Matter Expert (SME)

An individual presumed to be highly knowledgeable about a particular job analysis.

Higher level employee, manager, HRM

Creative Behavior

Involves doing things at work that are innovative and that provide some value for the organization.

Innovative and Provide Value

Agency Theory

Addresses potential conflicts of interests among different groups of stakeholders in an organization.

Derived from the fact that the individuals who own a firm do not actually run it on a daily basis, problems arise when the interests of the owners (the principals) are in conflict with the interests of the managers. (Agent)

Goal Theory

Proposed by Ed Locke

Model motivation based on the premise that people with goals work harder than people without goals.

Not all goals are created equal and that goals that are difficult and yet specific and concrete will motivate employees best.

Equity Theory

A person's perceived inputs to a (work) setting and the outcomes received from that setting.

Suggests that everyone calculates the ratio of inputs to outcomes, similar to considering a return on any investment.

Valence

Refers to how attractive or unattractive an outcome is for a person

Performance to outcomes expectancy (instrumentality)
Correlation Coefficient

A person's perception of the probability that improved performance will lead to certain outcomes.
Operationally seen as a correlation coefficient indicating that as performance improves, the chances of gaining outcomes can either go up (a positive correlation) or go down (negative correlation)

Effort to performance expectancy (or expectancy)

A person's perception of the probability that an increases in effort will result in an increase in performance
This can range from 0 to 1.0
If ee put in effort it will result in better performance

Expectancy Theory
(VIE Theory)

Theory of motivation that cast the employee in the role of decision maker.
An employee decides whether or not to exert effort, depending on outcomes he or she anticipates receiving for those efforts as based on calculations concerning expectancies, instrumentalities valence and the links among these three components.

Variable Ratio Schedules

The number of times a behavior must occur before it is reward changes over time
ie: a person must try something 7 times before liking food.

Fixed Ratio Schedules

The number of times a behavior must occur before if is reward remains constant over time
Fixed = remains constant (reward)
Ratio schedule = # of times behavior must occur

(Reward = Raise)

Ratio Schedule

Behavior is reinforced as a function of how many times the behavior occurs.
ie: reward someone every fifth time a desired behavior occurs.
Ratio a desired behavior occurs.
Ratio = how many times
Schedule = reward after # of time

Fixed Interval Schedules

The amount of times that must pass before a reward is given is constant overtime
Fixed = reward is a constant (the same)
Interval Schedule = Amount of time

Variable Interval Schedules

The aamount of time that must pass before a reward is given can change from one reward period to another.
Schedule = Time that must pass
Variable Interval = Amount of time can change

Interval Schedules

Partial reinforcement schedules in which behavior is reinforced as a function of the passage of time.
ie: rewarding someone every 10 minutes as long as they were exhibiting desired behavior.
Interval = every 10 min
Schedule = reinforced behavior

Partial Reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior only part of the time rather than all the time (it can be applied to punishment as well but the reward case is simpler)
Partial = Part Reinforcement = Part

Behavior Modification

Combiniation of positive reinforcement with either punishment or extinction that replaces an undesired behavior with a desired behavior.
Modification = undesired behavior to desireed behavior using positive or negative reeinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Refers to the situation in which a behavior is followed by positive consequences and thus is likely to be repeated.
Good behavior reward and is likely to be repeated.
Positive = Good Rewards

Reinforcement Theory

A process theory, usually associated with B.F Skinner, which purposes that all behavior is a function of its consequences.
Behavior driveen by consequences.

Process Theories

Motivation theories that focus on how people become motivated and what they are motivated to do rather than on what motivates them.
How & What motivation theory

Dual Factor Theory

Neeed-based theory proposed by Federick Herzberg:
Identifies motivates and hygiene factors as two sets of consition at work that can satisfy needs.
has little empirical support for its model.

ERG Theory

A need-based theory of motivation processed by Clayton Alderfer
Involves 3 rather than 5 levels of needs, allows for someone to regress from a higher - level need to a lower - level need.
existance, relatedness, growth needs
Individuals who cant find relationship spend time earning money.

Prepotent

Needs are those specific needs (of the five levels in the models) that are capable of motivating behavior at any given point in time.

Specific needs that motivate behavior at any time

Hierarchy of needs

Model proposed by Abraham Malow specifies five levels of needs that are capable of motivating behavior: Physiological, security , social, esteem, and self- actualization.

Needs-based Theories

Theories of motivation that focus on what motivates a person, rather than on how that motivation occurs

Motivation

Determines how a person will exert his or her effort. It represents the forces operating on the person to except effort, as well as the direction in which that effort will be exerted.
Reason for behaving in a particular way. General desire or willingness of someone to do something.

Collateral Stress Programs

Organizational programs created specifically to help employees deal with stress
Stress Management - health programs
work-life-balance

Institutional Programs

anaging stress are undertaken through esteablished organization mechanism.

ie: properly designed job & week schedules

Turnover

Refers to people leaving their jobs, whether voluntarily or involuntarily.

Burnout

A general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experience too much proessure and too few sources of satisfaction.
Physical or mental collapse caused by overwork or stress.

Career Counseling

Involves interaction between an individual employee or manager in the organization and either a line manager or an HR manager.
Counseling, mentoring/coaching on career related to career opportunities or goals/path or development.

Individual assessment phase

requires that individuals analyze carefully what they peerceive to be their own abilities, competencies skills and goals
Self-evaluation of own abilities, competencies, skills, and goals prior to evaluation from manager.

Disengagement Stage

Fourth traditional career stage involves the individual gradually beginning to pull away from work in the organizationn. Priorities change, and work may become less important.
Employees losing interest in work no longer satisfied.

Career

The set of experiences and activities that people engage in related to their job and livelihood over the cource of their working life.
Occupation undeertaken for period of time in life with opportunities for progress (starting at the bottom working way up)

Exploration Stage

The first traditional career stage and involves identifying. Interests and opportunities.

Establishment Stage

Stage of the traditional career model involves creating a meaningful and relevant role in the organization.
Establishing a position in organization

Maintenance Stage

Involves Optimizing talents or capabilities

Think Oil Change to optimize performance

Classification System

Attempts to group sets of jobs together into clusters, which are often called grades.

Determines level of skill and pay
ie: military

SMART Model

Specific: Action plans that will accompany a goal.

Measurable: A method for determining when the goal is met.

Action-Oriented: Actions that will be taken to reach the goal.

Realistic: Enough to challenge and is achievable.

Time-Based: Timeframe for completion of the goal

Learning and Development

Tactile/Kinesthetic

Absorbed information best when they are moving, doing, and touching.
Will respond to the handson approach.

Visual Learners

Do best when offered pictures charts, and video
They need to visualize in order to understand.
Power point presentations.

Auditory Learners

Pick up new facts more easily when they hear them.
Thrive on lectures and group discussions
Lectures- Useful in small doses - used to introduce topics

Lectures

Useful in small doses
Sttart training with lecture to introduce topics
Used to inform and to answer questions, often in combination with other training methods such as demonstrations.

Ddemonstrations

"How-to-training" helpful for kinesthetic learners.
Good idea to accompany demo with written handouts for visual learners.
Used as on the job training program or combined with a lecture program.

E-Learning

CBT, EPSS, Distance learning
Computter-based or web-based packages.
An interactive training method that combines elements of the lecture, demonstration, one on one, a simulation methods.
(LMS = Learning Management Systems)

Job Descriptive Index

Designed to measure employers satisfaction with their jobs. The JDI is a "facet" measure of job satisfaction, meaning that job satisfaction, meaning that participants are asked to think about specific facets of their job and rate their satisfaction with those specific facets.

Knowledge Workers

Employees who add value simply because of what they know.
Include computer scientist, engineers, physical scientist
A challenge for HR due to entitlement.

Organizational Learning

Process by which an organization "learns" from past mistakes and adapts to its environment.
Using organizational memory

Diversity Training

Specifically designed to enable members of an organization to function better in a diverse workplace.
Men and women can be taught to work together.

Organizational development

A system-wide effort, managed from the top of the organization, to increase the organizations overall performance through planned interventions.
Purpose is to ultimately change the way the entire organization operates.
ie: Survey feedback, observation.

Vestibule Training

Involves a work simulation situation in which the job is performed under a condition that closely simulates the real work environment.

Apprenticeship

Involve a combination of on the job training and classroom instruction

Worked-based programs

Tie training and development activities directly to performance of the tasks.
"on the job training"

Development

Refers to teaching managers and professionals the skills needed for both present and future jobs.

Training

A planned attempt by an organization to facilitate employee learning of job related knowledge, skills and behaviors.

Utility Analysis

An attempt to determine the extent to which a selection system provides real benefit to the organization.
Assesses the pratical pay off in terms of percentage "hit rate"

Criterion-Related Validity

The extent to which a selection technique accurately predicts elements of performance.
Demonstrated by establishing a correlation between a test or measured performance in a simulated work environment and measures of actual on the job performance.

(Test) Validity

Scores on a test are related to performance on a job. This must be determined empirically, and it is critical to defending against charges of discrimination in hiring.
The extent to which a measure or indicator is in fact a real reflection of what it is assumed to be.

Reliability

Consistency of a particular selection device that is it measures whatever it is supposed to measure with out random error; this is not the same as accuracy.

Big Five Personality traits

Neuroticism, extraverion, openess to expierence, agreeeableness, and conscientiousness tend to be more behavioral than cognitive or emotional and are likely to be more important for job performance than more traditional personality traits.

Experience

The amount of time the individual has spent working in either a general capacity or a particular field of study.

Education

Refers to the formal classroom training a individual has received in public or private schools and in a college, University, or technical school.

Knowledge Workers

Employees whose job are primarily concerned with the acquisition and application of knowledge.
They contribute to an organization through what they know and how they can apply what they know.