Learning Theories

(HSED 643)

"In the HSED program, we approach the work that we do from the perspective that to address any specific issue in sexuality, one must address three domains: Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (or Affect). When beginning to look at any intervention, folks in the field sometimes begin with what is called a 'KSA Analysis', asking 'To get the outcome that we desire, what Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes need to be addressed in an intervention?' [Behavior change theories are covered in the textbook, addressing the Affect portion of KSA Analysis] but what is often missing, or assumed, in the behavior change theories, though, is the learning theory."

Adult Learning Theory

(Developed by K.P. Cross)

Provides guidelines for adult education programs using the Characteristics of Adults as Learners model (CAL):

• Personal characteristics - aging, life phases, and developmental stages
• Situational characteristics - part-time vs. full-time learning, voluntary vs. compulsory learning

Adult Learning programs should:

• Employ different strategies depending on the characteristics
• Allow for freedom of choice in program design
• Encourage advancement through stages of personal development

Androgogy

(Developed by Malcolm Knowles)

Adults are self-directed and able to assume  responsibility for decisions.
Instruction for adults should be more process-focused than content-focused (i.e. making use of case studies, role play, simulations, etc), with the instructor in the role of facilitator.

Adult learners:

1. Need to know why they need to learn something
2. Need to learn experientially
3. Approach learning as problem-solving
4. Learn best when the value of the topic is evident

Experiential Learning Theory

(Developed by C. Rogers)

There are two types of learning: Cognitive (abstract, academic knowledge) and Experiential (practical, applied knowledge)

Role of instructor is to facilitate in creating an effectual, affective, egalitarian learning environment, communicate the purpose of the learning, provide resources, address the needs of the learners, etc.

Role of student is to participate in learning process, self-initiate and self-evaluate, confront and overcome practical problems, etc.

Information Processing Theory

(Developed by George Miller)

Miller developed two main ideas (Chunking and TOTE), believing that behavior is hierarchically organized:

Chunking - Approximately 7 (give or take 2) chunks of meaningful information (digits, words, etc.) should be given at a time. Attention span is limited to this amount, keeping it short helps memory.

TOTE - Test, Operate, Test, Exit. Test to see if the goal has been achieved, perform operation, retest, continue until goal is achieved or abandoned.

Multiple Intelligences

(Developed by Howard Gardner)

The 7 forms of intelligence (linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, spatial, body/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal) exist in varying degrees in each learner.

Insructor should design lessons and evaluations to cater to a variety of different forms of intelligence, encourage learners to use their preferred intelligences in learning.

Script Theory

(Developed by Roger Schank)

All memory is eposodic, generalized episodes are organized as scripts made of specific memories.

Scripts allow learners to make inferences needed to fill in missing information and achieve understanding. Understanding happens in terms of scripts, plans, and structures.

Higher level expectations are created by goals and plans.

Situated Learning

(Developed by J. Lave)

Learning is a function of the activity context and culture in which it occurs.

Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge, though situated learning is typically unintentional.

Learning requires social interaction and collaboration within a "community of practice", allowing certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired.

Social Learning Theory

(Developed by A. Bandura)

Emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Involves collaboration of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically, then enacting it correctly. Modeled behavior should be coded into words, labels, or images for maximum retention.

Learners are most likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it shares similarities with the learner, has admired status, and/or has functional value.

Attribution Theory

(Developed by B. Weiner)

Attempts to determine how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior, why people do what they do, how causes effect behavior.

Process - observe behavior, believe behavior was intentional, determine if the behavior was forced

1. Attribution is a three stage process: (1) behavior is observed, (2) behavior is determined to be deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to internal or external causes.
2. Achievement can be attributed to (1) effort, (2) ability, (3) level of task difficulty, or (4) luck.
3. Causal dimensions of behavior are (1) locus of control, (2) stability, and (3) controllability.

Cognitive Dissonance

(Developed by Leon Festinger)

People tend to seek cognitive consistency. When there is inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors, something must change to eliminate the dissonance.

Strength of Dissonance - number of dissonant beliefs, importance attached to each belief. Greatest dissonance created by equally attractive alternatives.

3 Ways to Eliminate Dissonance - reduce importance of beliefs, add new consonant beliefs to outweigh dissonant ones, change beliefs to they are no longer inconsistant.

Constructivist Theory

(Developed by Jerome Bruner)

Learning is an active process in which learners construct new concepts and ideas based on past and current knowledge.

Instruction should:

• Encourage students towards self-discovery.
• Be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn.
• Be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student.
• Be designed to facilitate extrapolation/filling in the gaps.

Phenomenography

(Developed by F. Marton and N. Entwistle)

Data should be collected directly from learners themselves through self-report and interview.

Researchers should seek an understanding of the phenomenon of learning by examining the students' experiences.

Research should be conducted in a naturalistic setting involving the actual content.