Term
| E.L. Thorndike - Law of Effect |
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Definition
| The precursor of operant conditioning. The law of effect postulated a cause-and effect chain of behavior revolving around reinforcement. Individuals do what rewards them and stop doing what doesn't bring some reward. |
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Term
| Kurt Lewin - Theory of Association |
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Definition
| The forerunner of beahviorism. Association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. Organisms associate certain behaviors with certain rewards and certain cues with certain situations. This is what Ivan Pavlov later proved experimentally |
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Term
| Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning - Pavlovian Conditioning |
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Definition
Pavlov - Nobel Prize winner for work on digestion.
Classical Conditioning - teaching an organism to respond to a neutral stimulus by pairing the neutral stimulus with a not-so-neutral stimulus. Pavlov knew he was on to something when his dogs would salivate not just at the sight of food but also at the sound of assistant's footsteps. The neutral stimulus of the footsteps had been paired so often with the arrival of food that the dogs began to salivate simply in |
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Term
| John B Watson - School of Behaviorism |
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Definition
| Watson's idea of learning, like his idea of all behavior, was that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains. Only objective and observable elements were f importance to organisms and to psychology. |
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Term
| B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning - Skinner Box |
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Definition
Skinner conducted the first scientific experiments to prove the concepts in Thorndike's law of effect and in Watson's idea of the causes and effects of behavior. Operant conditioning is the idea of behavior being influence primarily by reinforcement. He created the now classic stereotype psychological study using the Skinner Box and rats.
Skinner proved that animals are influence by reinforcement and later discussed the effect of reinforcement on human beings |
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Term
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Definition
| The relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as the result of experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| Pioneerd by Pavlov, is often called Pavlovian conditioning. This involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a not-so neutral stimulus; this creates a relationship between the two. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own. In Pavlov's experiments, this was the light before he conditioned the response to it. |
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Term
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| The not-so-neutral stimulus. In Pavlov's dog experiments, the UCS is the food. Without conditioning the stimulus elicits the response of salivating. |
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Term
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| The neutral stimulus once it has been paired with the UCS. The CS has no naturally occurring response, but it is conditioned through pairings with a UCS. In classical conditioning, a CS (the light) is paired with a UCS (food), so that the CS alone will produce a response |
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Term
| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
| The naturally occurring response to the UCS. For Pavlov's dogs it was salivation in response to the food. |
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Term
| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| The response that the CS elicits after conditioning. The UCR and the CR are the same (salivating to food or a light, for example). |
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Term
| Simultaneous Conditioning |
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Definition
| The UCS and the CS are presented at the same time |
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Term
| Higher-Order Conditioning/Second-Order Conditioning |
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Definition
| A conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as UCS. Using Pvalov's dogs as an example, for higher order conditioning the experimenter would use the light as a UCS after the light reliably elicited saliva in the dogs. Food would no longer be used in the experiment, but now the light would be the UCS. The light could be paired with a bell(CS) until the bell alone elicited saliva int he dogs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Pairing the CS and the UCS in which the CS is presented before the UCS |
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Term
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Definition
| The presentation of the CS begins before that of the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented. |
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Term
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Definition
| The CS stimulus is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented |
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Term
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Definition
| The CS is presented after the UCS is presented. This type of conditioning is proven to be ineffective and it accomplishes only inhibitory conditioning, which makes it harder for the dog to pair the light and food even if they were presented in a forward fashion. |
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Term
| Operant Conditioning - Instrumental Conditioning - B.F. Skinner |
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Definition
| Aims to influence a response through various reinforcement strategies. It's the idea that we do what reaps rewards and don't do things that don't reap rewards. |
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Term
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Definition
| The experimenter rewards the subject for even being near the lever and then rewarded them again for touching the lever. The subjects were rewarded for behaviors that brought them close and closer to actually pressing the bar. |
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Term
| Differential Reinforcement of Successive Approximations |
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Definition
| Another name for shaping. Rewarding behaviors that get closer and closer to desired target behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A natural reinforcement. Something that is reinforcing on its own without the requirement of learning. Food and water are primary reinforcers. |
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Term
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Definition
| A learned reinforcer. Money is the perfect example. Every day, we work to rewarded with money, but for someone on a desert islant, money would do very little. Secondary reinforcements are often learned through society. Other examples are prestige, awards, and a token economy (described on the next page). |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of reward or positive event acting a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular response. Rewarding a dog with a treat stimulates the response of obeying in the future. Some subjects are not motivated by rewards because they don't believe or understand that the rewards will be given. |
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Term
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Definition
| Negative reinforcement is not punishment. It is not the delivery of a negative consequence. Rather, it is reinforcement through the removal of negative event. Negative reinforcement works by taking away something that he or she dislikes. |
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Term
| Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment |
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Definition
1. Negative reinforcement encourages the subject to behave a certain way, and punishment encourages a subject to stop behaving in a certain way.
2. Negative reinforcement entails removing a negative event, and punishment entails introducing a negative event. |
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Term
| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule |
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Definition
| Every correct response is met with some form of reinforcement. This facilitates the quickest learning but also more susceptible to extinction. |
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Term
| Partial Reinforcement Schedule |
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Definition
| Not all correct responses are met with reinforcement. This requires more learning time but is more resistant to extinction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reinforcement is delivered after a consistent number of responses. Because the ratio is fixed, the behavior is vulnerable to extinction. When the rewards stop coming a scheduled, the animal will discern this and give up on receiving the rewards. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning takes the most time to occur, but the learning is least likely to become extinguished.A variable ratio is different from a fixed ratio in that reinforcements are delivered after different numbers of correct responses. The ratio cannot be predicted. |
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Term
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Definition
With interval schedules, rewards come after the passage of a certain period of time rather than the number of behaviors.
So, for example, if the fixed interval is five minutes, the rat will get rewarded the first time it presses the lever after a five-minute period has elapsed, regardless of what the rat did during the preceding five minutes. |
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Term
| Variable interval Schedule |
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Definition
| Rewards are delivered after differing time periods. Variable interval schedule is the second most effective strategy in maintaining behavior.The length of time varies, so one never knows when the reinforcement is just around the corner. |
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Term
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Definition
| An artificial mini-economy is usually found in prisons, rehabilitation centers, or mental hospitals. Individuals in the environment are motivated by secondary reinforcers, tokens in this case. |
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Term
| Primary or Instinctive Drives |
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Definition
| Motivations that drive actions based on instinct such as hunger or thirst. |
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Term
| Secondary or Acquired Drives |
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Definition
| Motivations that are learned over the lifetime of the organism such as money. |
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Term
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Definition
| Individuals are motivated simply to try something new or to explore their environment. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Fritz Heider's Balance Theory |
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Definition
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Term
| Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's Congruity Theory |
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Definition
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Term
| Leon Festinger's Cognitve Dissonance Theory |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Clark Hall - Performance = Drive x Habit |
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Definition
| Individuals are first motivated by drive and then they act according to old successful habits. |
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Term
Edward Tolman - Performance = Expectation x Value
(Expectancy-value theory) |
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Definition
| People are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet. Another factor is how important the goal is. |
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Term
| Henry Murray and Daivd McClelland - Need for Achievement |
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Definition
| This may be manifested through a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure, but either way, the goal is to feel successful. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory of Motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment, and want to succeed more than they fear failure. Because success is so important, these people are unlikely to set unrealistic or risky goals or to persist when success is unlikely. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain. |
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Term
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Definition
| That people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterward with something they like to do. |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of motivation, they must be adequately aroused to learn or perform. |
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Term
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Definition
Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance. Too little or too much arousal could hamper performance of tasks.
For simple tasks, the optimal level of arousal is toward the high end.
For complex takss, the optimal level of arousal is toward the low end.
The optimal arousal level for any type of task, however, is never at the extremes. (Yerkes-Dodson effect) |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to any even that an organism reacts to. The stimulus is the first link in a stimulus-response chain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli. A doorbell ringing means something different than a phone ringing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Opposite of stimulus discrimination. To generalize is to make the same response to a group of similar stimuli. Not all fire alarms sound alike, we know that they all require the same response. |
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Term
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Definition
| The form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. One learns what to do in response to a particular trigger |
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Term
| Perceptual or Concept Learning |
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Definition
| Refers to learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains. An individual learns about something rather than any particular response. |
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Term
| Tolman's Experiments - Cognitive Maps |
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Definition
| Animals forming maps of mazes rather than simple escape routes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Teaches an animal how to avoid something the animal does not want. |
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Term
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Definition
| Uses punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Promotes extinction of an undesirable behavior. After an unwanted behavior is performed, the punishment is presented.This acts as a negative stimulus, which should decrease the likelihood that the earlier behavior will be repeated. |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the concept that what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state. State, here, is obviously referring to a physiological state. |
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Term
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Definition
| The reversal of conditioning. The goal is to encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behavior. This is done by withholding reinforcement for a behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The reappearance of an extinguished response, even in the absence of further conditioning. |
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Term
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Definition
Learning that takes place without reinforcement. The actual learning is revealed at some other time.
For example: Learning things while watching someone else without realizing you are learning; then applying the learning later. |
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Term
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Definition
Accidental learning. Unrelated items are grouped together during incidental learning.
For example: A dog hating car rides because it means going to the vet. |
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Term
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Definition
When someone "learns" that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated.
For example: When a football fan wears the same shirt for games because he thinks it will help the team win. |
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Term
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Definition
| The act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement. One behavior triggers the next and so on. Learning the alphabet is an example of chaining. |
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Term
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Definition
| The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity with the stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Increased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Classical conditioning concept referring to an animal's inability to infer a relationship between a particular stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors, such as bar pressing or key pecking. The animal is, in a sense, shaping its own behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Individuals learn through their culture. People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in society. |
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Term
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Definition
| Simply the act of learning something by watching. |
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Term
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Definition
| The learning and behaving by imitating others. |
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Term
| Albert Bandura - Bobo Doll |
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Definition
| In this study, children who watched adults physically abuse a blowup doll in a playroom proceeded to do the same during their playtime with the bobo doll; children who did not witness the aggression did not behave in this way. |
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Term
| John Garcia - Garcia Effect |
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Definition
| The extremely strong connection that animals form between nausea and food has been used to explain why humans can become sick only one time from eating a particular food and are never able to eat that food again. |
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Term
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Definition
| The concept that certain associations are learned more easily than others. |
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Term
| M.E. Olds - Against Drive-Reduction Theory |
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Definition
| Experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement. Animals would perform behaviors to receive the stimulation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Easier to learn - riding a bicycle |
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Term
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Definition
| Tasks divided up into different parts that do not facilitate the recall of each other. - Setting up a chessboard. |
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Term
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Definition
| Previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later. |
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Term
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Definition
| Previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task. |
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Term
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Definition
| Affects learning. Humans are primed to learn between the ages of 3 and 20. From the age of 20 to 50, the ability to learn remains fairly constant. After the age of 50, the ability to learn drops. |
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Term
| Learning Curve 0 Hermann Ebbinghaus |
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Definition
When learning something new, the rate of learning usually chagnes over time.
For example: When learning a foreign language someone may quickly learn a bunch of vocabulary words and basic sentence structure, but as they try to learn more complex grammatical constructions the rate of learning may decrease.
Positive Acceleration- rate of learning increasing
Negative Acceleration- rate of learning decreasing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Credited with writing the first educational psychology textbook in 1903. |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of characteristics that are indicative of a person's ability to learn. |
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Term
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Definition
| Students working on a project together in small groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a teach encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts that are beyond the student's capability. |
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