Term
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Definition
| chemicals that treat human diseases |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| targets of microbes in harming them |
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Definition
cell wall synthesis
protein synthesis
nucleic acid synthesis
cell membrane damage
structural analogs |
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Term
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Definition
| removing the moisture to kill microbes |
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Term
| most resistant to killing? |
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Definition
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Term
| least resistant to killing? |
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Definition
| viruses with lipid envelopes. the envelope makes them more vulnerable |
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Term
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Definition
high concentrations of salt in foods to inhibit growth
water in cell is drawn out by osmosis
cell dessicates
traps bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
ionizing- denature dna. more dangerous
non-ionizing- uv light thymine dimer fused together. disinfects air, surfaces of objects |
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Term
| chemical methods of microbial control |
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Definition
phenols
alcohols
halogens
oxidizing agents
surfactants
heavy metals
gaseous agents
antimicrobics |
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Term
| chemical methods of microbial control vary with |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
damage everything, esp. proteins
remove electrons
high level disinfectants and antiseptics
ie ozone, peroxide, superoxide |
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Term
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Definition
surface active chemicals that reduce surface tension of solvents to make them more effective at dissolving solutes
ie. soaps and detergents and quats |
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Term
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Definition
alter the 3d shape of proteins, messes up their function
low-level |
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Term
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Definition
| produced by bacteria to kill others for competing purposes. we take it and alter it (semi-synthetic) or make it in the lab (synthetic) |
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Term
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Definition
"magic bullets"
cure for syphilis |
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Term
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Definition
discovered penicillin
and antibiotics produces naturally |
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Term
| 3 basic principles of antimicrobial therapy |
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Definition
1) selective toxicity-kill organisms not man
2) reach- site of infection at inhibitory concentrations
3) penetrate and bind- to target, avoiding side effects. |
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Term
| fewer drugs to treat ____ infections |
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Definition
| eukaryotic. because we have those cells too so selective toxicity is dificil |
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Term
| inhibition of cell wall synthesis |
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Definition
prevent cross-linking of NAM subunits.
beta-lactams bind to the enzymes that link them.
doesn't allow them to build a cell wall so they lyse
ie. PENICILLIN AND VANCOMYCIN |
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Term
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Definition
most effective of all drugs. no side effects
have beta-lactams |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| inhibition of protein synthesis |
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Definition
prok rib's are 70s
euk rib's are 80s
selectively target TRANSLATION
can be harmful to us because mitochondria of animals and humans have 70s
ie. ERYTHROMYCIN
TETRACYCLINE
STREPTOMYCIN
kill protein synthesis, and you die |
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Term
| disruption of cytoplasmic membranes |
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Definition
AMPHOTERICIN B attaches to ergosterol found in fungal membranes. humans susceptible bc we have cholesterol. bacteria lack sterols though
POLYMYXIN disrupts cytoplasmics membranes of g-. toxic to human kidneys so only used if necessary |
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Term
| inhibition of metabolic pathways |
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Definition
huamns obtain folic acid from diet, so our metabolism is unaffected
but bacteria need to make folate, and TRIMETHOPRIM disrupts this process
growth factor analogs- substances that look like one that works but dont. inhibit folate synthesis
sulfa drugs- growth factor analogs |
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Term
| inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis |
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Definition
block replication or transcription
HIGHLY toxic
only slight diff between prok and euk dna
distort nucleic bases which prevent processes
QUINOLONES act against prok
RIFAMPIN bind to and inhibit rna polymerase |
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Term
| prevention of virus attachment or block virus replication |
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Definition
attachment can be blocked by peptide and sugar analogs of attachment/receptor proteins
HIV drugs:
reverse transcriptase inhibitors- doesnt allow RNA to DNA so can't replicate
protease inhibitors- doesnt allow proteins to be cut into normal sizes so can't replicate |
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Term
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Definition
| how many diff organisms the antibiotic can kill |
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Term
| efficacy of an antimicrobial |
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Definition
dosage required to be effective
routes of administration
overall safety
side effects? |
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Term
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Definition
minimum inhibitory concentration
lowest concentration of a substance that inhibits growth of a test organism |
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Term
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Definition
filter papers w compounds over a lawn of bacteria
zones of inhibition (measure the diameter to get spectrum of action) |
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Term
| three main categories of side effects |
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Definition
toxicity
allergies
disruption of normal microbiota |
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Term
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Definition
exact cause not understood
can be toxic to kidneys, liver, or nerves |
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Term
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Definition
although allergic reactions are rare, can be life threatening
anaphylactic shock |
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Term
| resistance by bacteria acquired 2 ways |
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Definition
1) new mutations of chromosomal genes
2) acquisition of r-plasmids via transformation, transduction, and conjugation |
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Term
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Definition
pathogen can acquire resistance to more than one drug at a time, common when r-plasmids exchanged.
often in hospitals bc drugs eliminate sensitive cells |
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Term
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Definition
| resist multiple antibodies |
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Term
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Definition
| resistant to one antibiotic, you become resistant to that whole class of antibiotics |
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Term
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Definition
high concentrations of drug maintained in patient for long enough to kill all sensitive cells and inhibits others long enough for immune system to destroy
-limit use to antibiotics to necessary cases
-development of new variations of drugs to make them better |
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Term
| people become resistant to antibiotics by |
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Definition
not finishing pills
saving them and using them later
sharing the pills |
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Term
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Definition
| target enzyme or other sites may be altered so drug cant attach/enter. resistance |
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Term
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Definition
| by increasing impermeability of cell wall or pumping drug out of cell. resistance |
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Term
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Definition
| production of enzymes which modify or destory the antibiotic. resistance |
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Term
| how to control the spread of antibacterial resistance |
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Definition
prevent dispensing of antibiotics w/o a prescription
minimize the use of antibiotics in industry
prevent misuse of antibiotics |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
inhibitors of cell membrane synthesis
block biosynthesis of ergosterol
ie PENICILLIN, micanzole, ketoconazole, fluconazoleitaconazole |
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Term
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Definition
bind sterols in cell membrane, causing leakage of cell components and death
ie AMPHOTERICIN B |
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Term
| for fungal infections, what is the best target? |
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Definition
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Term
| who produces antibiotics in nature |
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Definition
1) streptomyces
2) bacillus
-both bacterial-
3) penicillum (fungus |
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Term
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Definition
innate (natural)
acquired (adaptive) |
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Term
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Definition
general.
skin, mucus membrane, inflammation, fever, phagocytic barriers |
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Term
| acquired immunity includes |
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Definition
specific
t cells, b cells
tolerance, memory |
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Term
| three immune lines of defense |
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Definition
1) skin and mucus membrane
2) cellular and humoral defenses (lysozyme, phagocytosis, etc)
3) cellular and humoral defenses (antibodies, t cells, cytokines) |
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Term
| immune system advantages and disadvantages |
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Definition
adv- kills bacteria, kills bad cells, destroys viruses and toxins
disadv- allergies, rejects transplanted tissues, sometimes attacks itself |
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Term
| key components to the immune system |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
1) erythrocytes (RBC)
2) platelets (clotting aids),
3) immune system proteins like complement
4) immune system cells (WBC) |
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Term
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Definition
white blood cells.
includes lymphocytes, monocytes, neutropils, natural killer cells |
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Term
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Definition
lymphoid organs: primary organs (thymus, bone marrow)
secondary organs (spleen, lymph nodes.
provides traveling. allows the news of infection to travel through the body |
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Term
| lymph and blood are the same except for |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
non-self
must be large enough to see
all components of microbes are antigens
infected cancerous human cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
perspiration (high salt)
sebaceous glands secrete oil
lysozyme destroys cell wall of bacteria
epidermis
-tightly packed layer of cells
-shed dead skin cells often |
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Term
|
Definition
line all body cavities open to the outside environment
epithelium- similar to epidermis. outer covering of mucus membrane. tightly packed cells, sheds a lot
also have deeper connective layer that supports it |
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Term
| microbial antagonism (normal flora) |
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Definition
competition for pathogens
helps stimulate body's second line of defense
natural populations fight for its residency |
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Term
| second line of defense components |
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Definition
phagocytosis
extracellular killing by leukocytes (NK cells)
non-specific chemical defenses
INFLAMMATION
FEVER |
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Term
|
Definition
bacteria physically removes and digests the infection
include:
-monocytes that circulate in blood
-those become macrophages that live in tissues
-neutrophils engulf and destroy bacteria |
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Term
|
Definition
remove bacteria
clean up dead cells
present antigen to T cells
produce cytokines |
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Term
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Definition
| identify infection and tell other t cells about it. ALERT. hey i killed this |
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Term
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Definition
has harsh chemicals that kill cell wall of bacteria
if the fusion doesn't happen, it's phagocytic failure. capsule, carotenoid, and leukocidine inhibit phagocytic killing |
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Term
|
Definition
make the bacteria leaky by drilling a hole in it
serum proteins that destroy extracellular microbes
lyse foreign cells
attract phagocytes to it (chemotaxis)
aid phagocytes in their job (opsonization)
harmless until activated |
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Term
|
Definition
kill viruses
alpha, beta, gamma
nonspecifically inhibit spread of viral infections |
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Term
|
Definition
nonspecific
redness, heat, swelling, pain
acute: develops quickly, short lived. beneficial
chronic: develops slowly, long lived, damage to tissues |
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Term
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Definition
temp over 37 celcius
pyrogens trigger the hypothalamus to increase your temp |
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Term
| third line of defense is the |
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Definition
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Term
| 3 parts of adaptive immunity |
|
Definition
specificity- certain bacteria
tolerance- dont attack self
memory- various lengths of time it lasts |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the antigen that the antibody binds to |
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Term
|
Definition
make antibodies when triggered
arise and mature in red bone marrow
few circulate in blood, found in spleen, lymph nodes |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
immune system proteins made by activated b cells that bind to specific antigens.
don't kill anything, just identify them for attack and aid phagocytosis |
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Term
|
Definition
plasma cells (short, actively producing)
or memory cells (long lived, partially activated) |
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Term
|
Definition
binding sites (unique part)
variable regions, constant regions, disulfide bonds
2 heavy chains
2 light chains
top half-recognizes infection
lower-sticks out
millions of possibilities and rearrangements |
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Term
|
Definition
IgG- major circulating antibody. highest #
IgM- first to appear after infection
IgA- major antibody in secretions like tears
IgE- involved in allergic reactions |
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Term
|
Definition
do not produce antibodies
produced in red bone marrow, mature in thymus
circulate in lymph and blood
part of the CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE because they act directly against antigens
1) coordinate the attack
2) kill human cells that have gone bad |
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Term
|
Definition
CD8 cell-surface glycoprotein
directly kill certain cells |
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Term
|
Definition
CD4 marker on surface
function to help regulate the activites of b cells and Tc cells
secrete cytokines (protein messengers that determine which immune response will be activated)
type 1- assist Tc cells
type 2- assist b cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| proteins secreted by leukocytes. immune system modulators used for communication |
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Term
|
Definition
type of acquired.
b cell activation and clonal selection
immunity mediated by antibodies
directed against extracellular pathogens
memory cells formed |
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Term
|
Definition
t cells
attack:
-altered self cells
-cells infected with viruses
-intracellular bacteria
-cancer cells
immunity mediated by cells of the immune system against intracellular pathogen and abnormal cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| toxic chemical that pokes holes in a cell, making it leak and lyse |
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Term
|
Definition
kill everything.
normal cells express a protein that deactivated nk cells.
otherwise they kill |
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Term
|
Definition
major histocompatibility complex
membrane proteins
present antigens to t cells
important in tissue rejection
MHC 1- processed. present self antigen.
MHC 2- found on APC's. non-self antigens. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
large antigen molecules
b cells can bind these directly w/o being processed |
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Term
|
Definition
smaller antigens.
b cells require help from helper t cells to target them
need to be processed |
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Term
| antibodies have much quicker responses primary/secondary response |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
explains how the immune system responds to the millions of diff foreign antigens in a highly specific way.
each animal billion lymphocytes.
each lymphocyte reactive to particular antigen.
lymphocytes that are reactive to antigens actually encountered are activated |
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Term
|
Definition
200 variable region segments
50 diversity regions
4 joining segments
5 constant regions |
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Term
|
Definition
induced unresponsiveness to certain antigens
clonal anergy and anergized cells-destroy those b and t cells that are against yourself |
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Term
| naturally vs. artificially acquired immunity |
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Definition
natural- immune response against getting sick
artificial- response to antigens introduced via a vaccine |
|
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Term
| active immunity vs. passive |
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Definition
active- active response to antigens, making your own antibodies
passive- receiving antibodies from another individuals |
|
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Term
| active vs. passive immunization |
|
Definition
active- administration of a vaccine so you grow your own b cells
passive- receive preform antibodies |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
uses pathogens that are living but have reduced virulence
stimulate strong immune response
vaccinated people infect those around them, providing herd immunity.
problem: may cause disease. preg women shouldnt do it |
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Term
| inactivated (killed) vaccines |
|
Definition
vaccines produces with deactivated but whole microbes, or with antigenic fragments of microbes.
both safer than live bc can't replicate or mutate.
less antigenic so have to give them more of it
problem: no herd immunity. weak. allergic reactions due to high dose |
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Term
|
Definition
least antigenic.
chemically modified toxins to stimulate active immunity
require multiple doses
problem: possess few antigenic determinants |
|
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Term
| problems associated with vaccination |
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Definition
mild toxicity like pain at injection site
anaphylactic shock- allergic reaction
allegations that can cause autism, diabetes, asthma |
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Term
|
Definition
administration of preform antibodies.
used when protection from recent infection is needed quickly
they grow the antibody in someone elses body |
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Term
|
Definition
| antigen-antibody interactions |
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Term
|
Definition
easy serological test.
antigens and antibody mixed in the proper proportion form large complexes called precipitates |
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Term
|
Definition
occurs due to cross-linking of antibodies w/ particulate antigens
clumping of insoluble particles. (precipitation is insoluble)
use this if bacteria is not soluble |
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Term
|
Definition
prevents binding to target site
test if individual has been exposed to a virus |
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Term
|
Definition
use antibody molecules that are linked to some molecular label that allows them to be easily detected
flourescent antibody tests
ELISA test
western blot test |
|
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Term
| differential wbc count test |
|
Definition
can signal signs of disease
-eosinophils: indicate allergies
-leukocytes/neutrophils: indicate bact. diseases
-increase in lymphocytes: viral infection |
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Term
|
Definition
any immune response against a foreign antigen that is exaggerated beyond the norm
4 types (immediate, cytotoxic, immune-complex mediated, delayed or cell-mediated) |
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Term
| Type 1 Immediate Hypersensitivity |
|
Definition
localized or systemic rxns that result from release of inflammatory molcules in response to an antigen
develop w/in seconds or minutes
three groups of cells: mast, basophils, eosinophils. release histomine. inflammatory compounds |
|
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Term
| localized allergic reactions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| systemic allergic reactions |
|
Definition
degranulation of mast cells at once
large amount of histamine
anaphylactic shock can occur
treat with epinephrine |
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Term
| type 2 cytotoxic hypersensitivity |
|
Definition
results when cells are destroyed by an immune response
destruction of blood cells after a bad transfusion or destruction of fetal cells in disease of newborn
your cells kill your own cells |
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Term
|
Definition
type 2 hypersensitivity
recipient's imune system fends off foreign antigens and destroys them |
|
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Term
| RH system and Hemolytic Disease of Newborn |
|
Definition
type 2
rh is an antigen in RBC
hemolytic disease- mom's blood tried to kill baby's because don't agree
not everyone has rh |
|
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Term
| Type 3 immune-complex method hypersensitivity |
|
Definition
due to formation of antigen-antibody complexes (immune complex)
systemic rxns: lupus(make antibody against your own dna), rhematoid arthritis(antibody against joint components)
localized rxns:
hypersensitivity pneumonitis
glomerulonephritis
autoimmune diseases, react to your own cells |
|
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Term
|
Definition
immune complexes circulating in bloodstream are deposited on walls of kidneys
impedes blood filtration
kidney failure, death |
|
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Term
| Type 4 delayed or cell-mediated hypersensitivity |
|
Definition
inflammation due to contact with certain antigens
12-24 hours after ontact
antigen, APC's, and T-cells
slow bc of t- cells
examples: tuberculin response
allergic contact dermatitis
graft rejection
graft vs. host disease |
|
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Term
|
Definition
type 4
skin of an individual exposed to TB reacts to an injection
swelling develops if injected into a previously infected individual, otherwise nothing |
|
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Term
|
Definition
type 4
rejection of tissues or organs that have been transplanted
normal immune response against foreign MHC proteins on surface of graft cells |
|
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Term
| why are fetuses not rejected? |
|
Definition
| no much of an MHC expression in the first few months |
|
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Term
|
Definition
when donated bone marrow cells regard the patients cells as foreign which produces an immune response
immunosuppressive drugs used to prevent graft rejection can stop graft-vs-host disease |
|
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Term
| donor-recipient matching and tissue typing |
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Definition
| MHC compatibility between donor and recipient can be hard to achieve due to a high degree of variability among individuals |
|
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Term
|
Definition
valuable for successful transplants and for treating autoimmune disease
classes:
corticosteroids- most common
cytotoxic drugs
immunophilins
lymphocyte-depleting therapies |
|
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Term
|
Definition
because the body makes antibodies and Tc cells that target normal body cells
appear spontaneously/random
usually older individuals
usually women |
|
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Term
| theories of the etiology of autoimmunity |
|
Definition
estrogen can stimulate destruction of tissues by Tc cells
some maternal cells may cross the placenta and trigger disease later in life
environmental factors- after viral infection
genetic factors- some have MHC that in some way promote autoimmunity |
|
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Term
| 2 categories of autoimmune diseases |
|
Definition
single tissue- can commonly affect various tissues (blood cells, endocrine glands, nervous tissue)
systemic diseases- systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis |
|
|
Term
autoimmunity affecting blood cells
autoimmunity affecting endocrine organs |
|
Definition
production of autoantibodies to blood platelets. blood does not clot.
production of antibodies affects pancrease and can give you type 1 diabetes. or grave's disease if targets thyroid |
|
|
Term
| autoimmunity affecting nervous tissue |
|
Definition
multiple sclerosis
brain tissue attacked by Tc cells
vision, speech, muscular function hurt |
|
|
Term
| systemic lupus erythematosus |
|
Definition
type 3
attack cells by attacking DNA
results in complex formation
butterfly-shaped rash
gloperulinephritis and arthritis |
|
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Term
|
Definition
attack your own joint tissues
type 3 reaction
damage joint tissues-erodes cartilage |
|
|
Term
| immunodeficiency diseases |
|
Definition
conditions resulting from defective immune mechanisms
opportunistic pathogens prey on this
primary- born with it
acquired- developed later in life
*sever stress: excess production of corticosteroids suppresses cell immunity
*malnutrition: inhibit b and t cells
ie. HIV |
|
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Term
|
Definition
stimulate a large fraction of t- cells
severe vomiting, shock
act like a multiple infection
responsible for TSS
staph
drop in blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| innate and acquired immunity work together or separately? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
present from birth
not specific
no memory
second exposure not enhancing
cellular and humoral components
not effective w/o adaptive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
learned by experience
specific
has memory
enhanced by second exposure
cellular and humoral components
not effective w/o innate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
microogranisms change their environments and or adapt to change themselves
1st ones to show up, last to leave
can't sustain life w/o them
only a few causes diseases |
|
|
Term
| roles microbes play in our lives |
|
Definition
maintain soil fertility
clean up and recycle dead organic
fix nitrogen gas into usable forms
used to extract minerals from ores (mining)
primary food for marine and freshwater life
make biomass |
|
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Term
|
Definition
atoms in organisms came from inorganic, dead matter
same atoms will exit living organisms as inorganic matter.
complete cycle, aided by microbes |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| recycling microbes in the soil that break down organic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
greenhouse gases (co2, methane) absorb solar radiation and increase surface temp.
microbes also fix co2 |
|
|
Term
| processes of microbes useful to humans |
|
Definition
1) food microbio- use of microbes in production and prevention of illnesses
2) industrial microbio- involves the application of microbes to indust manufac processes and the solution of problems
3)environmental microbio- explores where microbes are found in nature and what they do |
|
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Term
| bacteria produce food by means of ____ |
|
Definition
| fermentation. (making acids by metabolizing sugar) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| stomach of cattle has rennin that cleaves the casein protein in milk making it easier to curdle when microbes convert the lactose sugar in milk to acid. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| metabolism of carbs under anaerobic conditions. carried out by teast and some bacteria |
|
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Term
|
Definition
mushrooms
mold in cheese
soy, algae, yeast
eatable algae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eliminated mesophilic bacteria and endospores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
lowers the # of microbes but some survive
used w/ delicate foods and beverages |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| foods are frozen and then a vaccum draws off the ice crystals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
can penetrate foods and damage dna of microbes
can achieve complete sterilization w/o harming food |
|
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Term
|
Definition
interferes with enzymatic function
(preservative) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
can occur from consumption of spoiled foods
food poisoning
*infections- result from consumption of living microbes
*intoxications- caused by the consumption of toxins, not the microbe |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| devices that combine bacteria with electronic measuring devices to detect other bacteria. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sensors composed of microbes w/ innate signaling capabilities such as ability to GLOW in presence of biological compounds |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Cryptosporidium and Giardia (parasites)
they have cysts that survive chlorination |
|
|
Term
| ___% of mericans drink unsafe or inadequately treated water |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of Water borne diseases |
|
Definition
cholera
traveler's diarrhea
giardia intestinalis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| not completely pure, but safe enough to drink |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bacteria that usually live in the human gut, such as e. coli
the indicator organism |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| # of bacteria per 100 ml of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
common ruminants include cattle sheep goats elk deer camels and giraffe.
eat grass, can't break it down, so bacteria produce the enzymes that break it down. then ferment these sugars making products the animal can consume |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| rich in organic nutrients like human excrement. must be removed before sewage released into the environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
easily biodegradable organic matter.
broken down by microbes
also called mineralization |
|
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Term
|
Definition
solid portion of sewage. mineralize it.
anaerobic process.
methane is the product |
|
|
Term
| liquid portion of sewage treatment |
|
Definition
primary- take pieces of debris out
secondary- break down organic anaerobically
tertiary- remove inorganic matter |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| use of microbes to produce high-value commodity such as enzymes, hormones, etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
biological cleanup of pollutants.
done by microbes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs when compounds are taken up by sequential members of the food chain, thereby concentrating large amounts of it in the later members. BIRD good indicator |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
extreme conditions
don't cause diseases
prokar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that use co2 as primary carbon source |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use organic compounds as their primary carbon source |
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Term
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Definition
found on sea floor. expel superheated water that is rich in minerals
some bacteria can grow there, no o2 no light, hot, extreme |
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Term
| acidophiles vs. alkaliphiles vs. halophiles |
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Definition
acid- thrive at ph less than 5
alkali- thrive at ph greater than 10
halo- salt-loving |
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