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a set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behavior toward a goal
Initiation, Direction, Persisitence |
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| Maslow's Hiearchy of Needs |
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Physiological, Saftey, Social/Love, Esteem, Self-actualization (from most important to least)
lower order needs must be satisfied before other needs can serve as motivators
people do not stop thinking about basic needs just because they satisified, people from differnet cultures emphasize differnet needs, collectivisitc cultures emphasize social needs more than other needs |
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| assumes exclusively rational economic behavior |
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| Needs approach to ordering motivation and its theories |
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| identifying, categorizing, and figuring out how to satisfy individual needs; examples: Maslow/ERG and Hygiene/Motivators, problems are satiability and relative deprivation |
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| Process approach to ordering motivation and its theories |
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| considering the thought, cognitive, or other social processes that influence behavior choices; examples: Expectancy theory and goal setting |
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| – Maslow Revised; Three categories: Existence – desire for physiological and material well being; Relatedness – desire for satisfying personal relationships; Growth – desire for personal growth and development; more than one need can be activated at the same time, and a lower level need is activated when a higher level need is not satisfied |
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| – McGregor, all people are inherently lazy and un-ambitious and need to be prodded to do work, self-fulfilling; monitoring, control, incentive focus give rise to these behaviors |
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| McGregor, people like to contribute when the work is interesting; freedom and independence as well as appreciation/acknowledgement generates Theory Y-consistent behavior |
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| Herzberg, factors that prevent dissatisfaction. absence is a negative motivator |
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| Herzberg, factors that promote satisfaction, presence is a positive motivator |
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| Vroom; what determines the willingness of an individual to exert personal effort to work at tasks that contribute to organizational performance? The answer is Expectancy (E – (can I do it?) probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance), Instrumentality (I – (Are the consequences certain?) probability assigned by an individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to work outcome), and Valence - (V – (Co I care?) value attached by the individual to a work outcome); |
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| Motivation Force = E * I * V; a zero n any of these dimension means that motivation is zero; requires managers to maximize expectancy, instrumentality and valance to achieve high levels of motivation |
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| self-concepts, values and personal expression |
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| – the probability that one actor in a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests |
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| French and Raven’s 5 Bases of Power |
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| (P=limited to influence on a person; O=produced by a social agent): Reward power – a power whose basis is the ability to reward; Coercive power – a power of force, compulsion and authority, similar to reward power in that social influence manipulates the attainment of valences, dependent change; Legitimate power – organizational authority, power which stems from internalized values in P which dictate that O has a legitimate right to influence P and that P has an obligation to accept this influence; Referent power – through association with others who possess power based on P’s identification with O; Expert power – power of knowledge or ability, “informational power” |
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| Etzioni’s 3 Forms of Power: |
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| Coercive Power – the application or threat of the application of physical sanctions such as infliction of pain, deformity, death, restriction, and frustration; Remunerative power – based on control over material resources and rewards through allocations of salaries, wages, commissions, services and commodities; Normative power – Peer pressure, or securing individual compliance with a group by giving or with- holding esteem; the allocation and manipulation of symbolic rewards and deprivations through employment of leaders, manipulation of mass media, allocation of esteem and prestige symbols, and influence pure normative power – more useful for organizations; social power - |
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| – leader needs to be able to communicate with a lot of people, establish credibility, competence, get attention of the group, be able to inform, have awareness and name recognition, have confidence, mobilize people around ideas (win followers through persistence, competence, and respect), implement ideas, maintain the mobilization, go the distance; this is difficult and over-looked; emergent leadership at an individual level is most relevant for small groups |
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| A coalition must be formed if it needs to have far-reaching consequences, involves significant risk and complexity, and involves a struggle over scarce resources; defined as an alliance or a union into one body or organization; coalitions diffuse risks, gain legitimacy, pre-empt derailments, prevent sabotage, gain a critical mass of support; in order to build a coalition, there must be two dimensions: establish credibility, expected benefit to others; 4 methods for establishing credibility: position/authority, integrity/organization history, expertise, opportunity (right place, right time); 4 types of support: Strong support = great credibility and great benefits; Weak support = little credibility and little benefits; Reluctant support = great credibility and little benefits; Passive support = little credibility and great benefits; the degree to which individuals are invested in group outcomes and success matters; low investment group members don’t care about leadership; high investment leadership more likely to be contested and require additional work, more challenges during implementation |
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| – collective, common purpose or common fate, commonly understood boundary; same goal, same direction, work on the same ting, might be structured, collective motivations, “common good”, more than one person, interdependencies, much different from a “collection of individuals”; morale and self-esteem benefits, different perspectives broader range; strength in numbers; interdependencies can be a weak link; company; Groups can also be less efficient because of social loafing and free riding |
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| In-group vs. out-group; the basis of intergroup discrimination; the psychological theory that individuals within groups adopt similar attitudes to people outside the group; Favoring of the in-group at the expense of the out-group |
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| Social loafing/Free-riding |
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| letting other people do the work in a group and then share the outcome and success equally; depends on Task (Additive (serial)/Collective (linear), Simple (vs Complex), Uniqueness of individual contributions), Group (Size, cohesiveness, gender compositions), Structure/Setting (Accountability, individual recognition, culture), Individual (Fear of other’s Social Loafing or poor performance, task valence) |
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| Stages of group development |
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| View 1: 4 Stages 1)Forming 2) Storming 3) Norming 4) Performing; View 2: Punctuated Equilibrium |
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| groups that have stages of development and revolutionize in groups midway through |
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| action complying with social standards or other people’s attitudes |
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| the practice of approaching problems or issues as matters that are best dealt with by consensus of a group rather than by individuals acting independently, particular example of group conformity; generally leads to a bad decision-making process; incomplete survey of alternatives, failure to examine risks of preferred choices, poor information search, selective bias in processing information, failure to work out contingency plans; a bad decision making process; unlikely to yield very creative or innovative solutions |
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| • When groupthink is good – Illusion of invulnerability=bold commitments to audacious projects and confidence and convition, belief in inherent morality=driven by an ideology, direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship=eject dissent like a virus and commitment and cooperation, self-appointed mindguards=loyalty to leader |
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| : illusion of invulnerability (creates confidence and conviction, ex. Many believed that the Japanese would never risk attacking the US), collective rationalization (ex Pres. Johsnon's lunch group Spent time justifying the Vietnam war more than reflecting upon and rethinking past decision), belief in inherent morality (confidence and conviction ex. Kennedy group knew that some cabinet members had moral reservations about invading a smaller neighboring country but these reservation were never explored), stereotyped views of out-groups (ex Kennedy group convinced themselves that Castro's group were all weak),direct pressure on dissenters (both lead to commitment and cooperation ex. People who disagree are ridiculed. When Pre Johnson assistant entered room, the pres said "here comes Mr. stop the bombing), self-censorship (After bay of pigs "my feelings of guilty were tempered by the knowledge that any objection would have accomplished nothing but gain me a name as a nuisance) illusion of unanimity (ex Absence of dissent creates illusion of unanimity. Everyone might disagree but everyone thinks that everyone else agrees), self-appointed ‘mind-guards’ (leads to loyalty to the leader ex People who protect the leader from hearing disagreeable facts. Top NASA executive made the decision to launch never heard the engineers objection); |
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| – 2 views: 1) 4 stages Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing 2) Punctuated Equilibrium, Midpoint transition |
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| naively about social east and avoiding discomfort; can support dissent; can be about task success; prevent harmful conformity |
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| all solution ideally encourage people to express their authentic opinion, assigned devils advocate is not effective, process that improve decision-making may decrease group social harmony, group harmony and reliabile decision quality are often tradeoffs |
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| differences in group composition; important: a collective property |
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| – protected categories (EEO, org-specific), protected often because of historical or pervasive societal inequalities, social dynamics are complex, poorly understood, laden with social taboos; recipe for doing odd/silly things |
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| Factors promoting Diversity in Orgs |
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| – Legitimacy, Demographic Shift, Business case – 7 hypotheses Racial diversity is associated with Increased sales revenue, More customers, greater market share, Greater relative profits, Gender diversity is assocaited with Increased sales revenue, More customers and greater relative profits (carrot), Legal Environment (Sick) – Many laws: Civil rights act o f196, Americans with disabilities act of 1990, Lilly led better Fair Pay act of 2009, Individuals and the gov (via the EEOC) can and do sue, Settlements are notable |
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| Factors Hindering Diversity in Orgs |
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| lay theory, type of diversity and conflict, some conflict is good |
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| Diversity is associated with conflict, may result in self-censorship and restrict the free-flow expression of information and opinions, may make the org more likely to face censure |
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| Forms of diversity and conflict |
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| information=perspective, social category=sex, race, age, etc., value-purpose of group |
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| Methods to resolve Conflict |
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| Methods to preserve division: Win-lose, compromise, withdrawl or isolation, indifference “agreeing to disagree”; methods that can lessen divisions: smoothing over, super ordinate theory, problem-solving –risky but also greatest potential returns |
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| matters in most early stages, formation, establishing norms, effects decay |
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| diversity matters over long term |
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| some things that are learned cannot be turned off ie reading English, there is evidenc that attention to race or sex operates similarly in our culture, we need tricks to avoid being racist, and sexist otherwise it is likely we will be |
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