Term
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Definition
| Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood, within which cellular elements are suspended (p547) |
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Term
| Plasma and its composition (type of proteins that are in plasma, etc.) |
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Definition
Plasma is 92% water and 7% proteins
Out of those proteins, 60% are albumins. Albumins and nine other proteins - including globulins, the clotting protein fibrinogen, and the iron-transporting protein transferrin - make up more than 90% of all plasma proteins. (p547) |
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Term
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Definition
| Tissue basophils are called mast cells. (Basophils are the fifth type of mature white blood cells). (p549) |
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Term
| What happens when monocytes leave the circulation and go to the tissues? |
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Definition
| They develop into macrophages (p549) |
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Term
| The total volume of blood in the body for a man of 70kg. |
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Definition
| Total blood volume in a 70kg man = 5L or 7% of his body weight. |
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Term
| Which is the cell that is called the progenetor of all other cells? |
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Definition
| Pluripotent stem cells have the remarkable ability to develop into many different cell types. As they specialize, they narrow their possible fates. First, they become uncommitted stem cells, then progenitor cells that are committed to developing into one or perhaps two cell types. Progenitor cells differentiate into red blood cells, lymphocytes, other white blood cells, and megakaryocytes, the parent cells of platelets. (p549) |
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Term
| The percentage of white blood cells... |
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Definition
In the regions of marrow that are actively producing blood cells, about 75% are destined to become white blood cells. (p551)
In the body, however, the ratio of white blood cells is much smaller (1:700)
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Blood.html |
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Term
| What are colony-stimulating factors? |
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Definition
| Colony-stimulating factors were identified and named for their ability to stimulate the growth of leukocyte colonies in culture. These cytokines, made by endothelial cells, marrow fibroblasts, and white blood cells, regulate leukocyte production and development, or leukopoiesis. CSFs induce both cell division (mitosis) and cell maturation in stem cells. Once a leukocyte matures, it loses its ability to undergo mitosis. (p551) |
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Term
| What is involved in red blood cell production? |
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Definition
| Erythropoietin from the kidneys, several cytokines, and about 25% of the active regions of bone marrow are involved in the production of red blood cells. |
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Term
| Trombopoetin / where is it produced? |
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Definition
| Thrombopoetin is mainly produced in the liver (but also present in the kidney) and influences the growth or differentiation of megakaryocytes (slides 16-9) |
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Term
| Red blood cells in adults? |
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Definition
| As a child ages, the active regions of bone marrow decrease, and in adults, the only areas producing blood cells are the pelvis, spine, ribs, cranium, and proximal ends of long bones. |
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Term
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Definition
| Red blood cell production (erythropoeiesis) is controlled by the glycoprotein (erythropoietin). It is made primarily in the kidneys of adults. |
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Term
| Primary stimulus for release of erethropoetin |
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Definition
| The stimulus for EPO synthesis and release is hypoxia, low oxygen levels in the tissues. (through the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1). |
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Term
| Red blood cells – what is the average life span / function |
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Definition
Red blood cells live for about 120 days (give or take 20 days).
Their primary function is to facilitate oxygen transport from the lungs to cells, and carbon dioxide transport from cells to lungs. (p553-554) |
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Term
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Definition
| Hemoglobin is the oxygen-binding protein of red blood cells that give active bone marrow its red color. |
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Term
| Which are the proteins inside a red blood cell? |
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Definition
Proteins inside a red blood cell:
-enzymes
-hemoglobin
-filaments linked to transmembrane attachment proteins
-lacks a nucleus & ER --> no protein synthesis |
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Term
| Hematocrits are used for? |
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Definition
| The ratio of red blood cells to plasma is indicated clinically by the hematocrit. This test provides a rapid and inexpensive way to estimate a person's red cell count. (p553) |
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Term
| Red blood cells (production, what is the process). The red blood cell production increases when … |
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Definition
Erythropoiesis is the production of red blood cells and is controlled by the glycoprotein erythropoietin (EPO) found in the kidneys. EPO synthesis and release is stimulated by hypoxia, low oxygen levels in the tissues. By stimulating the synthesis of red blood cells, EPO puts more hemoglobin into the circulation to carry oxygen.
In bone marrow, progenitor cells differentiate in several stages into large, nucleated erythroblasts. As these cells mature, the nucleus condenses and the cell shrinks in diameter. In the last stage before maturation, the nucleus is pinched off and other membranous organelles disappear. The final immature cell, called a reticulocyte, leaves the marrow and enters the circulation, where it matures into an erythrocyte in 24 hours. |
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Term
| What happens to excessive iron in the body? |
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Definition
| Excess iron in the body is stored, mostly in the liver, in the protein ferritin and its derivatives (p555). |
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Term
| Which one is the carrier protein that transports absorbed proteins to the blood cells? |
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Definition
| Transferrin is the carrier protein that transports absorbed iron to the blood cells. |
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Term
| What are platelets? (function) |
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Definition
Platelets are cell fragments produced in the bone marrow from huge cells called megakaryocytes. (p559)
Whenever you are cut or have a break in your skin, platelets have the important job of traveling to the area and forming a clot or scab to stop the bleeding. Platelets also prevent you from bleeding even when you are not cut. They prevent blood from leaking out of the very tiny vessels in your body called capillaries.
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_do_platelets_do_in_your_body |
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Term
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Definition
| The dissolution of fibrin by plasmin is known as fibrinolysis. As the damaged vessel wall slowly repairs itself, fibrinolysis helps remove the clot. |
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Term
| primary function of respiratory system |
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Definition
4 primary functions:
- Exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood: the body brings in O2 for distribution to the tissues and eliminates CO2 waste produced by metabolism
- Homeostatic regulation of body pH: the lungs can alter body pH by selectively retaining or excreting CO2
- Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances: like all other epithelia that contact the external environment, the respiratory epithelium is well supplied with defense mechanisms to trap and destroy potentially harmful substances before they can enter the body.
- Vocalization: Air moving across the vocal cords creates vibrations used for speech, singing, and other forms of communication. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ventilation (or breathing) = the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs. Consists of inspiration (movement of air into the lungs) and expiration (movement of air out of the lungs). Normal ventilation = 4.2 L/min |
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Term
| What’s included in the upper and lower respiratory systems; what is included in each tract? |
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Definition
- Upper respiratory system: nasal cavity, tongue, pharynx, tongue, vocal cords, larynx, esophagus.
- Lower respiratory system: trachea, right lung, right bronchus, left lung, left bronchus, diaphragm
- Upper respiratory tract includes mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx. Lower respiratory tract includes trachea, two primary bronchi, bronchioles, and exchange surface of lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
The pressure-volume relationships of Boyle’s law provide the basis for pulmonary ventilation.
We can estimate the effectiveness of ventilation by calculating total pulmonary ventilation = the volume of air moved into and out of the lungs each minute; also known as minute volume.
Total pulmonary ventilation = ventilation rate x tidal volumen |
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Term
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Definition
| Alveolar ventilation = the amount of fresh air that reaches the alveoli each minute (a much more accurate indicator of ventilation efficiency). It is calculated by multiplying ventilation rate by the volume of fresh air that reaches the alveoli: Alveolar ventilation = ventilation rate x (tidal volume – dead space) |
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Term
| Gas exchange within the lungs: where does it occur? Alveoli? |
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Definition
| Gas exchange requires a large, thin, moist exchange surface; a pump to move air; and a circulatory system to transport gases to the cells. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange. The alveoli, clustured at the ends of terminal bronchioles, make up the bulk of lung tissue. Their primary function is the exchange of gases between themselves and the blood. |
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Term
| Know how the air passes through the different respiratory structures (the order) |
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Definition
| Primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles alveoli. |
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Term
| Airway between larynx and primary bronchi |
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Definition
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Term
| Where are the lungs located? |
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Definition
| Bones and muscles of the thorax, forming the thoracic cage, surround the lungs. The ribs and spine form the sides and top of the cage. The diaphragm (muscle) forms the floor. |
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Term
| Type I and II alveolar cells |
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Definition
- Type I alveolar cells: larger, occupy about 95% of the alveolar surface area and are very thin so that gases can diffuse rapidly through them
- Type II alveolar cells: smaller but thicker; synthesize and secrete a chemical known as surfactant. They also help minimize the amount of fluid present in the alveoli by transporting solutes, followed by water, out of the alveolar air space. |
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Term
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Definition
Surfactant mixes with the thin fluid lining of the alveoli to aid lungs as they expand during breathing. Surfactant decreases surface tension in the fluid lining the alveoli. Reduced surface tension prevents smaller alveoli from collapsing and also makes it easier to inflate the lungs.
Surfactants are molecules that disrupt cohesive forces between water molecules by substituting themselves for water at the surface. In the lungs, surfactant decreases surface tension of the alveolar fluid and thereby decreases resistance of the lung to stretch. It’s a mixture containing proteins and phospholipids. |
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Term
| Know how the diaphragm contracts and what happens to the surrounding muscles (intercostals) |
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Definition
| Muscles of the thoracic cage and diaphragm function as the pump because most lung tissue is thin exchange epithelium. When these muscle contract, the lungs expand, held to the inside of the chest wall by the pleural fluid. |
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Term
| Go over the Dalton’s flow |
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Definition
| Dalton’s Law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by the individual gases (=partial pressures). |
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Term
| Why air moves in or out of the lungs |
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Definition
- Flow takes place from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
- A muscular pump creates pressure gradients
- Resistance to air flow is influenced primarily by the diameter of the tubes through which the air is flowing |
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Term
| What happens in quiet breathing |
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Definition
| “Breathe quietly.” The volume for air that moves during a single inspiration or expiration is known as the tidal volume (VT). Average tidal volume during quiet breathing is about 500 mL. The primary muscles involved in quiet breathing (breathing at rest) are the diaphragm, the external intercostals, and the scalenes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Boyle’s Law describes pressure-volume relationships: P1V1 = P2V2. If the volume were to double, the pressure would be reduced by one half, and vice versa. The law states that as the volume available to a gas increases, the gas pressure decreases. The body creates pressure gradients by changing thoracic volume. |
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Term
| intrapleural pressure- typical value for it |
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Definition
The lungs are “stuck” to the thoracic cage by cohesive forces exerted by the fluid between the two pleural membranes. For this reason, when the thoracic cage moves, the lungs move with it.
The intrapleural pressure in the fluid between the pleural membranes is normally subatmospheric. This subatmospheric pressure arises during fetal development, when the thoracic cage with its associated pleural membrane grows more rapidly than the lung with its associated pleural membrane.The two pleural membranes are held together by the pleural fluid bond, so the elastic lungs are forced to stretch to conform to the larger volume of the thoracic cavity. At the same time, however, elastic recoil of the lungs creates an inwardly directed force that tries to pull the lungs away from the chest. The combination of the outward pull of the thoracic cage and the inward recoil of the elastic lungs creates a subatmospheric intrapleural pressure.
Intrapleural pressures are subatmospheric because the pleural cavity is a sealed compartment; they help keep the lungs inflated. |
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Term
| Commonalities of respiratory and digestive system |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens with active expiration (how is it produced) |
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Definition
During exercise or forced heavy breathing, the pressure differences values become proportionately larger. Active expiration occurs during voluntary exhalations and when ventilation exceeds 30-40 breaths per minute. (Normal resting ventilation rate is 12-20 breaths per minute for an adult.) Active expiration uses the internal intercostal muscles and the abdominal muscles, which are not used during inspiration. These muscles are collectively called the expiratory muscles.
Active expiration requires contraction of the internal intercostal and abdominal muscles. |
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Term
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Definition
| The surface tension created by the thin film of fluid is directed toward the center of the bubble. The law of LaPlace is an expression of this pressure. It states that the pressure (P) inside a bubble formed by a fluid film is a function of two factors: the surface tension of the fluid (T) and the radius of the bubble (r). Equation: P = 2T/r. The bubble can be equated to a fluid-lined alveolus. |
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Term
| What percentage of blood vessels covers the alveolar surface, and what is the alveolar surface composition (blood vessels, etc.) |
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Definition
| Connective tissue between alveolar epithelial cells contains many elastin and collagen fibers that create elastic recoil when lung tissue is stretched. Alveoli are closely associated with an extensive network of capillaries. Blood vessels fill 80-90% of the space between alveoli, forming an almost continuous “sheet” of blood. Proximity of capillary blood to alveolar air is essential for the rapid exchange of gases. |
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Term
| Distance between alveolar air space and capillary endothelium and what happens when gasses diffuse between them or how gases diffuse between them |
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Definition
? Gases move down pressure gradients; air flow occurs from higher pressure to lower pressure. Diffusion of gases down concentration (partial pressure) gradients applies to single gases. ?
??? |
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Term
| What happens if the increased pressure of C02? What happens if there’s an increase? What’s the cost? The flow of air? |
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Definition
Local mechanisms match air flow and blood flow around the alveoli. Increased levels of CO2 dilate bronchioles, and decreased O2 constricts pulmonary arterioles. Carbon dioxide in the airways is the primary paracrine that affects bronchiolar diameter. Increased CO2 in expired air relaxes bronchiolar smooth muscle and causes bronchodilation.
Bronchiolar diameter is mediated primarily by CO2 levels in exhaled air passing through them. |
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Term
| Histamines primary role in respiratory system |
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Definition
| Histamine is a paracrine that acts as a powerful bronchoconstrictor. This chemical is released by mast cells in response to either tissue damage or allergic reactions. In severe allergic reactions, large amounts of histamine may lead to widespread bronchoconstriction and difficult breathing. |
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Term
| Know how to define what the flow of air is and what it is proportional to |
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Definition
Like blood flow, air flow is bulk flow that requires a pump to create a pressure gradient and that encounters resistance, primarily from changes in the diameter of the tubes through which it flows.
Air flow in the respiratory tract obeys the same rule as blood flow:
Flow α ΔP/R
Meaning that air flows in response to a pressure gradient and flow decreases as the resistance of the system to flow increases. |
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Term
| What is the function of the kidneys |
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Definition
-regulation of EC flui volume and blood pressure, osmolarity, pH, ion balance, excretion of wastes, production of hormones
-4 functions: filtration reabsorption, secretion, excretion |
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Term
| Direct Regulation of ions in the kidneys (ions directly regulated) |
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Definition
| -Na+ is the major ion involved in the regulation of ECF volume and osmolarity |
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Term
| What does the color of urine represent: |
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Definition
-dark yellow=concentrated, pale straw= dilute, red=blood present, black=presence of hemoglobin metabolites
Where is urine produced: nephrons in the kidneys
How is it carried to the urinary bladder: ureters |
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Term
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Definition
| -below diaphragm, at level of lower ribs, just above the waist; behind peritoneal cavity (retroperitoneally) |
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Term
| Blood flow to the kidneys |
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Definition
| -renal arteries carry blood to kidneys; high rate of blood flow through kidneys is critical to renal function |
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Term
| What is the Bowman’s Capsule and the glomerulus |
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Definition
-glomerulus: ball-like network of capillaries that blood flows to from the afferent arteriole
-Bowman’s capsule: hollow ball-like structure where nephron begins; surrounds glomerulus |
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Term
| Endothelium of glomerulus fused to that of bowman’s capule so that fuid filtering out the capillaries passes directly into the lumen of the tubule. |
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Definition
| -renal corpuscule= combination of glomerulus and bowman’s capsule |
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Term
| Functional unit of the kidney |
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Definition
| = nephron (microscopic tubules) |
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Term
| Portion of Nephron closest to renal corpuscle: |
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Definition
| -juxtaglomerular apparatus |
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Term
| Process of filtration in the kidney: how does it happen |
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Definition
-filtration influenced by: Hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure), Colloid osmotic pressure, Fluid pressure created by fluid in Bowman’s capsule
-bowman’s capsule epithelium has specialized cells called podocytes that warp around the glomerular capillaries and create filtrations slits. Filtered solutes must then pass through 3 barriers (see # 14) |
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Term
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Definition
| Reabsorption, secretion, excretion, and filtration |
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Term
| In a normal kidney, what are the blood cells and plasma proteins: |
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Definition
?
Don’t understand what this question is asking/not in the book. ?
??? |
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Term
| Amount of plasma that filters into nephrons: |
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Definition
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Term
| Primary Function of proximal tubule: |
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Definition
-bulk reabsorption of isomotic fluid
-most reabsorption takes place there |
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Term
| Kidney filtration barrier: |
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Definition
Takes place in renal corpuscle
3 barriers that plasma must pass through before entering tubule lumen: glomeruler capillary enthelium, basal lamina, epithelium of Bowman’s capsule |
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Term
| Autoregulation in the kidneys: |
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Definition
key feature= proximity of the ascending limb and the arterioles allows paracrine communication between juxtaglomerular appartus and renal corpuscle
autoregulation of glomerular filtration is accomplished by a myogenic response of vascular smooth muscle in response to pressure changes and by tubuloglomerular feedback. |
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Term
| When there is high carbon dioxide in body fluid, what is they called? |
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Definition
| HYPERCAPNIA- elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide |
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Term
| The lung pathology (from certain heart diseases) |
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Definition
EMPHYSEMA- dramatic physical loss of alveolar surface area
ASTHMA- increased airway resistance decreases alveolar ventilation
FIBROTIC LUNG DISEASE- an increase in the thickness of the alveolar membrane
PULMONARY EDEMA- an increase in the diffusion distance between the alveolar air space and the blood. |
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Term
| What organ transports the carbon dioxide within the blood (how is transported the carbon dioxide within the blood) |
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Definition
| -Hemoglobin? Transports CO2 within the blood. |
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Term
| Partial pressure of oxygen in arterial pressure |
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Definition
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Term
| Be very familiar with oxygen transported by the blood |
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Definition
| 98% of Oxygen in blood is carried by hemoglobin, balance in plasma. |
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Term
| -each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules |
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Definition
| -In pulmonary capillaries where plasma P02 increases as oxygen diffuses in from the alveoli, hemoglobin binds oxygen. At the cells where oxygen is being used and Po2 falls, hemoglobin gives up its oxygen. |
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Term
| Be familiar with oxygen-hemoglobin curve (presentation online) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Extended periods of low oxygen
-triggers an increase in 2,3-DPG production in red blood cells which lowers the binding affinity of hemoglobin and shifts the dissociation curve to the right.
-Example: anemia, and ascent to high altitude |
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Term
| What is the most important chemical regulator of respiration? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the Hering – Breuer reflex? |
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Definition
-if tidal volume exceeds a certain volume stretch receptors in the lung signaled the brain stem to terminate inspiration.
-difficult to see in adults. |
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Term
| What do the expiratory neurons control? |
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Definition
| -During active expiration, the expiratory neurons from the Ventral Respiratory Group VRG activate the internal intercostals muscles and abdominal muscles. Inspiratory neurons are inhibited during this time. |
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Term
| What is the protective reflexes of the lungs? |
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Definition
| -Bronchocontriction: irritant receptors are stimulated in the airway mucosa and they send signals through sensory neurons to integrating centers in the CNS that trigger bronchocontriction. |
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Term
| -Other reflex responses are ___ and ___ |
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Definition
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