Term
Global Tectonics
Earth’s Magnetism
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Definition
Earth‘s magnetic
field is what would
be expected if there
were a large bar
magnet located at
the center of the Earth.
The magnetic field
is composed of lines
of force as shown in
the diagram here.
The magnetic field is thought
to be caused by electrical
currents generated by
flowing iron in the outer core.
Theory says that the
magnetic poles should
remain close to the pole of
rotation of the earth.
A compass needle points
along the lines of force of the
magnetic field.
The lines intersect the surface
at various angles that depend
on position on the surface.
This angle is called the
magnetic inclination.
Inclination is 0o at the
magnetic equator & 90o at
the magnetic poles.
By measuring the inclination
& the angle to the magnetic
pole, one can tell position on
the Earth relative to the
magnetic poles.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Earths Magnetism
Curie Temperature
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Definition
In the 1950s it was discovered that when magnetic minerals
cool below the Curie Temperature, domains within the
magnetic mineral take on an orientation parallel to any external
magnetic field present at the time they cool below this
temperature.
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Term
Global Tectonics
History of Earths Magnetic field
Paleomagnetism
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Definition
Initial studies of the how
the position of the Earth‘s
magnetic pole varied with
time were conducted in
Europe. These studies
showed that the magnetic
pole had apparently
moved through time.
When similar measurements
were made on rocks of
various ages in North
America, however, a
different path of the
magnetic pole was found.
This either suggested that (a) the Earth has had more than one
magnetic pole at various times in the past (not likely), or (b) that
the different continents have moved relative to each other over
time.
Studies of ancient pole
positions for other
continents confirmed
the latter hypothesis,
and seemed to confirm
the theory of
Continental Drift.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea‐Floor Spreading
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Definition
The purpose was to
understand the
topography of the
sea floor to find
hiding places for
submarines.
The topographic
studies involved
measuring the depth
to the sea floor.
These studies revealed the presence of two important
topographic features of the ocean floor:
Oceanic Ridges & Oceanic Trenches
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea- floor spreading
Oceanic Ridges
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Definition
long sinuous ridges that occupy the middle of
the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean.
These are oceanic ridges where new oceanic lithosphere is
created by upwelling mantle that melts, resulting in basaltic
magmas which intrude and erupt at the oceanic ridge to create
new oceanic lithosphere and crust.
Because the oceanic ridges are areas of young crust, there is
very little sediment accumulation on the ridges.
Sediment thickness increases in both directions away of the
ridge, and is thickest where the oceanic crust is the oldest.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea Floor Spreading
Oceanic Trenches
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Definition
deep trenches along the margins of
continents, particularly surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea Floor Spreading
magnetic
anomalies
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Definition
The records from the magnetometers revealed magnetic
anomalies on the sea floor, with magnetic high areas running
along the oceanic ridges, and parallel bands of alternating high
and low magnetism on either side of the oceanic ridges.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea-Floor spreading
Reversals of the Earth‘s Magnetic Field
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Definition
By dating the rocks by radiometric
techniques and correlating the
reversals throughout the world
they were able to establish the
magnetic time scale.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Sea‐Floor Spreading 2
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Definition
As this magma cooled it
took on the magnetism
of the magnetic field at
the time.
When the polarity of the
field changed new crust
and lithosphere created
at the ridge would take
on the different polarity.
This hypothesis led to
the theory of sea floor
spreading.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Divergent Plate boundaries
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Definition
where plates move away from
each other.
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Term
Global Tectonics
Convergent Plate Boundaries
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Definition
where plates move toward
each other.
When a plate of dense oceanic lithosphere moving in one direction collides with a plate moving in the opposite direction, one of the plates subducts beneath the other. Where this occurs an oceanic trench forms on the sea floor and the sinking plate becomes a subduction zone. The Wadati-Benioff Zone, a zone of earthquakes located along the subduction zone, identifies a subduction zone. The earthquakes may extend down to depths of 700 km before the subducting plate heats up and loses its ability to deform in a brittle fashion.
As the oceanic plate subducts, it begins to heat up causing the release water of water into the overlying mantle asthenosphere. The water reduces the melting temperature and results in the production of magmas. These magmas rise to the surface and create a volcanic arc parallel to the trench.
If the subduction occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, an island arc is produced at the surface (such as the Japanese islands, the Aleutian Islands, the Philippine islands, or the Caribbean islands
If the subduction occurs beneath continental crust, a continental volcanic arc is produced (such as the Cascades of the western U.S., or the Andes mountains of the South America) |
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Term
Global Tectonics
Transform Plate Boundaries,
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Definition
where plates slide past one
another.
Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a horizontal manner, a transform fault is created. Earthquakes along such transform faults are shallow focus earthquakes.
Most transform faults occur where oceanic ridges are offset on the sea floor. Such offset occurs because spreading takes place on the spherical surface of the Earth, and some parts of a plate must be moving at a higher relative velocity than other parts One of the largest such transform boundaries occurs along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates and is known as the San Andreas Fault. Here the transform fault cuts through continental lithosphere
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Term
subducts- GLOBAL TECTONICS
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Definition
When a plate of dense oceanic lithosphere moving in one
direction collides with a plate moving in the opposite direction,
one of the plates subducts beneath the other.
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Term
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Definition
Where this occurs an oceanic trench forms on the sea floor
and the sinking plate becomes a subduction zone.
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Term
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Definition
A zone of earthquakes – the
Wadati‐Benioff zone ‐ that
extend downward along the
subduction zone, identifies
subduction zones.
The earthquakes may
extend down to depths of
700 km before the
subducting plate heats up
and loses its ability to
deform in a brittle fashion.
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Term
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Definition
If the subduction occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, an
island arc is produced at the surface (such as the Japanese
islands, the Aleutian Islands, the Philippine islands, or the
Caribbean islands
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Term
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Definition
If the subduction occurs beneath continental crust, a continental
volcanic arc is produced (such as the Cascades of the western
U.S., or the Andes mountains of the South America)
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Term
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Definition
This will break the
rocks up into a
chaotic mixture of
broken, jumbled, and
thrust faulted rock
known as an
accretionary prism.
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Term
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Definition
Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a
horizontal manner, a transform fault is created.
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Term
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Definition
occur at points where thee plates meet.
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Term
What Causes Plate Tectonics?
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Definition
From seismic wave velocities we know that the asthenosphere
behaves in ductile manner, that is even though it is solid it can
flow under stress and behave like a liquid.
If this is the case, then it can also convect.
Convection is a mode of heat transfer wherein the heat moves
with the material.
Convection is caused when material that occurs at a deeper
level is heated to the point where it expands and becomes less
dense than the material above it.
When this occurs, the hot
less dense material rises.
Rising hot material will
eventually cool and
become denser than its
surroundings.
This cool dense material
must then sink.
This gives rise to convection cells, with hot rising currents and
cool descending currents.
If the asthenosphere is in fact moving as a result of convection,
then convection could be the mechanism responsible for plate
tectonics. Hot rising currents would occur beneath oceanic
ridges.
Magma intruding into the ridge would push lithosphere apart
at the ridge.
As the new lithosphere cools, it will slide off the topographic
high that results from the upwelling of the mantle and will
eventually become cold and dense.
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Term
Developed societies depend on mineral resources.
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Definition
Metals – Iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, aluminum, etc.
Non‐metals – Gypsum, limestone, aggregate, clay
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Term
Geologic definition of a mineral is specialized:
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Definition
Naturally occurring.
Solid.
Formed geologically.
Definite chemical
composition.
Ordered atomic
arrangement.
Mostly inorganic.
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Term
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Definition
Noble gases have completely filled outer shells, so they are
stable.
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Term
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Definition
The most common minerals are those based on Si and O: the
Silicates.
Silicates are based on SiO4‐4tetrahedron.
Silica tetrahedralink together by sharing oxygens.
More shared oxygen = lower Si:Oratio; governs…
Melting temperature.
Mineral structure and cationspresent.
Susceptibility to chemical weathering.
Tetrahedra share no oxygens ‐ linked by cations.
2‐dimensional sheets of linked tetrahedra.
Characterized by one direction of perfect cleavage.
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Term
Mica Group
silicate minerals
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Definition
Biotite (dark) and Mucsovite (light).
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Term
Clay Mineral Group
silicate minerals
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Definition
Feldspar weathering residue; tiny.
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Term
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Definition
Streak color same as mineral.
Magnetite – Black mineral; black streak.
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Term
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Definition
Streak color different than mineral.
Chromite – Black mineral; greenish‐brown streak.
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Term
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Definition
The way a mineral scatters light.
Two subdivisions.
Metallic – Looks like a metal.
Nonmetallic.
Vitreous (glassy).
Satiny.
Silky.
Resinous.
Pearly.
Earthy (dull).
Adamantine (brilliant).
Quartz – Vitreous luster
Quartz – Vitreous luster
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Term
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Definition
Tendency to break along planes of weakness.
Cleavage produces flat, shiny surfaces.
Described by number of planes and their angles.
Sometimes mistaken for crystal habit.
Cleavage is through‐going; often forms parallel “steps.”
Crystal habit is only on external surfaces.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 cleavages possible.
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Term
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Definition
Talc, Graphite
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
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Term
Chemical composition
gasses in magma
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Definition
Mostly H2O (water vapor) & some CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Minor amounts of Sulfur, Chlorine, & Fluorine gases
1. Basaltic or Gabbroic- high in fe, mg, ca low in k, na
2. Andesitic or Dioritic- intermediate in fe mg ca na k
3. Rhyolitic or Granitic- low in fe mg ca high in k na
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Term
The amount of gas
gasses in magmas
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Definition
Related to the chemical composition of the magma –
Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than
mafic magmas.
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Term
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Definition
Temperature increases with depth in the earth along the
geothermal gradient.
Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient is not high
enough to melt rocks, and thus most of the Earth is solid.
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Term
The earth is hot inside due to
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Definition
heat left over from the
original accretion process
heat released by sinking
of materials to form the
core
heat released by the
decay of radioactive
elements.
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Term
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Definition
Temperature
Solid Liquid
With No (H2O) or CO2 present ‐
melting occurs at a single
temperature at any given pressure.
Melting temperature increases
with increasing pressure or depth
in the Earth. Called dry melting.
temperatures
increase with increasing
pressure, except range of
temperature over which there
exists a partial melt.
Solid
Liquid
Crystals
Liquid
+
(Partial Melt)
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Term
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Definition
Solid +
Vapor Liquid +
Vapor
With H2O or CO2 present melting
takes place at a single temperature
at any given pressure, but first
decreases with increasing
pressure. Called wet melting.
range of
temperature range over
which partial melting
occurs.
Temperature of
beginning of melting first
decreases with
increasing pressure or
depth, then at high
pressure or depth
melting temperatures
again begin to riseTemperature
Solid +
Vapor Liquid +
Vapor
Liquid
+
Crystals
(Partial Melt)
+
Vapor
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Term
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Definition
If hot solid mantle material rises to lower
pressure or depth, carrying its heat with it, the new local
geothermal gradient could become higher than the initial melting
temperature and a partial melt will form. Thus, generation of magma in these three environments is likely
caused by decompression melting.
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Term
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Definition
When magmas
generated by some other
mechanism intrude into crust, they
bring with them heat.
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Term
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Definition
If water or carbon dioxide are added to rock, the
melting temperature is lowered.
If the addition takes place deep in the earth where the temperature
is already high, the lowering of melting temperature could cause the
rock to partially melt to generate magma.
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Term
Water introduced at subduction zones.
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Definition
Water present in the pore spaces of the subducting sea floor or in
minerals ‐ hornblende, biotite, or clay minerals ‐ released by the rising
temperature and then moves into overlying Mantle.
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Term
Magmas vary chemically due to…
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Definition
Initial source rock compositions.
Partial melting.
Assimilation.
Mixing
Fractional crystallization.
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Term
Initial Composition of Magma
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Definition
The initial composition of the
magma is dictated by the
composition of the source rock and
the degree of partial melting.
In general, melting of a mantle
source (garnet peridotite) results in
mafic/basaltic magmas.
Melting of crustal sources yields
more siliceous magmas.
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Term
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Definition
Processes that operate during transportation
toward the surface or during storage in the
crust can alter the chemical composition of the
magma.
These processes are referred to as magmatic
differentiation and include assimilation,
mixing, and crystal fractionation.
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Term
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Definition
As magma passes
through cooler rock it may
partially melt the surrounding
rock and incorporate this melt
into the magma.
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Term
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Definition
If two magmas with different
compositions happen to come in contact
with one another, they could mix together.
The mixed magma will have a composition
somewhere between that of the original
two magma compositions.
Evidence for mixing is often preserved in
the resulting rocks.
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Term
Fractional Crystallization
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Definition
When magma crystallizes it does so
over a range of temperature.
Each mineral begins to crystallize at a different temperature, and
if these minerals are somehow removed from the liquid, the
liquid composition will change.
The processes is called magmatic differentiation by Fractional Crystallization.
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Term
Chemical Composition of Magmas
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Definition
Crystals can be removed by a variety of
processes.
If the crystals are more dense than the
liquid, they may sink.
If they are less dense than the liquid
they will float.
If liquid is squeezed out by pressure,
then crystals will be left behind.
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Term
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Definition
As a mafic/basaltic magma is cooled Olivine and Ca‐rich plagioclase
crystallize first.
Upon further cooling, Olivine reacts with the liquid to produce
pyroxene and Ca‐rich plagioclase react with the liquid to produce
less Ca‐rich plagioclase.
But, if the olivine and Ca‐rich plagioclase are removed from the
liquid by crystal fractionation, then the remaining liquid will be
more SiO2 rich.
If process continues, an original mafic/basaltic magma changes to
andesite magma then a rhyolite magma with falling temperatur
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Term
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Definition
favored by low gas content and low
viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas and sometimes
rhyolitic magma).
Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved
gases.
- Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved gases
- Produce lava flows on surface
- Produce Pillow lavas if erupted beneath water
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Term
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Definition
If eruption column collapses a
pyroclastic flow may occur,
wherein gas and tephra rush
down the flanks of the volcano
at high speed.
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Term
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Definition
This is the most dangerous
type of volcanic eruption. The
deposits that are produced are
called ignimbrites.
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Term
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Definition
When magma intrudes it usually affects the surrounding rock and
is also affected by the surrounding rock. It may metamorphose
the surrounding rocks or cause hydrothermal alteration. The
magma itself may also cool rapidly near the contact with the
surrounding rock and thus show a chilled margin next to the
contact.
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Term
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Definition
It may also incorporate pieces of the surrounding rocks without
melting them. These incorporated pieces are called xenoliths
(foreign rocks).
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Term
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Definition
Dikes are small (<20 m wide) shallow intrusions that show a
discordant relationship to the rocks in which they
intrude. Discordant means that they cut across preexisting
structures.
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Term
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Definition
Sills are also small (<50 m thick) shallow intrusions that show a
concordant relationship with the rocks that they intrude. Sills
usually are fed by dikes, but these may not be exposed in the field.
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Term
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Definition
Laccoliths are somewhat large intrusions that result in uplift and
folding of the preexisting rocks above the intrusion. They are also
concordant types of intrusions
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Term
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Definition
Plutons are large intrusive bodies, of any shape that intrude in
replace rocks in an irregular fashion.
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Term
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Definition
Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely fed from deeper level
batholiths. Stocks may have been feeders for volcanic eruptions,
but because large amounts of erosion are required to expose a
stock or batholith, the associated volcanic rocks are rarely exposed.
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Term
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Definition
If multiple intrusive events
occur in the same part of the
crust, the body that forms is
called a batholith.
Several large batholiths occur in
the western U.S. ‐ The Sierra
Nevada Batholith, the Coast
Range Batholith, and the Idaho
Batholith, for example
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Term
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Definition
Fast cooling on the surface
results in many small crystals
or quenching to a glass. Gives
rise to aphanitic texture
(crystals cannot be
distinguished with the naked
eye)
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Term
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Definition
Slow cooling at depth in the
earth results in fewer much
larger crystals, gives rise to
phaneritic texture.
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Term
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Definition
develops
when slow cooling is followed
by rapid cooling.
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Term
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Definition
larger crystals, matrix or
groundmass = smaller crystals
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Term
Classification of Igneous Rocks
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Definition
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and
chemical composition, usually as reflected in the minerals that
from due to crystallization.
You will explore the classification of igneous rocks in the
laboratory portion of this course.
Basalts, Andesites,
and Rhyolites are
types of volcanic
rock distinguished
on the basis of their
mineral assemblage
and chemical
compostion.
These rocks tend to
be fine grained to
glassy or
porphyritic.
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Term
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Definition
light colored and light
weight rock consisting of
mostly holes (vesicles) that
were once occupied by gas,
Usually rhyolitic or andesitic.
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Term
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Definition
rock filled with holes
(like Swiss cheese) or vesicles
that were once occupied by
gas. Usually basaltic and
andesitic.
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Term
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Definition
hot, broken
fragments. Result from
explosively ripping apart of
magma.
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Term
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Definition
Loose assemblages of
pyroclasts called tephra.
Depending on size, tephra can
be classified as bombs. lapilli,
or ash.
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Term
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Definition
Rock formed by accumulation and cementation of tephra called a
pyroclastic rock or tuff. Welding, compaction and deposition of
other grains cause tephra (loose material) to be converted in
pyroclastic rock.
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Term
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Definition
Such large volume eruptions can have affects on the oceans
because they change the shape of ocean floor and cause a rise in
sea level, that sometimes floods the continents.
The plateaus form obstructions which can drastically change
ocean currents.
These changes in the ocean along with massive amounts of gas
released by the magmas can alter climate and have drastic
effects on life on the planet.
In the past, large volumes of mostly basaltic magma have
erupted on the sea floor to form large volcanic plateaus, such as
the Ontong Java Plateau in the eastern Pacific.
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Term
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Definition
An excellent example of a
continental rift valley is
the East African Rift.
Rising mantle beneath a continent can result in extensional
fractures in the continental crust to form a rift valley.
As the mantle rises it undergoes partial melting by decompression,
resulting in the production of basaltic magmas which may erupt as
flood basalts on the surface.
Melts that get trapped in
the crust can release heat
resulting in melting of the
crust to form rhyolitic
magmas that can also
erupt at the surface in the
rift valley.
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Term
Divergent Plate Boundaries
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Definition
Occasionally a hot spot is coincident with an oceanic ridge. In
such a case, the hot spot produces larger volumes of magma
than normally occur at ridge and thus build a volcanic island on
the ridge.
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Term
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Definition
A hot spot located beneath a continent can result in heat
transfer melting of the continental crust to produce large
rhyolitic volcanic centers and plutonic granitic plutons below.
A good example of a
continental hot spot is at
Yellowstone in the
western U.S.
As the overriding plate moves over the hot spot, the volcano
moves off of the hot spot and a new volcano forms over the hot
spot.
This produces a hot spot
track consisting of lines
of extinct volcanoes
leading to the active
volcano at the hot spot.
As discussed previously, hot spots are places are places where
hot mantle ascends toward the surface as plumes of hot rock.
Decompression melting in these rising plumes results in the
production of magmas which erupt to form a volcano on the
surface or sea floor, eventually building a volcanic island.
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Term
Convergent Plate Boundaries
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Definition
Subduction introduces water into the mantle above the
subduction causing flux melting to produce basaltic magmas.
These rise toward the surface differentiating by assimilation and
crystal fractionation to produce andesitic & rhyolitic magmas that
erupt to form Island Arcs and Continental Margin arcs.
Magmas that intrude
beneath the arcs can cause
crustal melting and form
plutons and batholiths of
diorite and granite
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Term
Distribution of Igneous Activity
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Definition
Igneous activity is currently taking place as it has in the past in
various tectonic settings. These include diverging and
converging plate boundaries, hot spots, and rift valleys.
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Term
Classification of Igneous Rocks
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Definition
Coarse grained rocks,
formed at deeper
levels in the earth
include gabbros,
diorites, and
granites.
These are chemically
equivalent to basalts,
andesites, and
rhyolites.
Shallow intrusions like dikes and
sills are usually fine grained and
sometimes porphyritic because
cooling rates are similar to those
of extrusive rocks.
Classification is similar to the
classification for
volcanic/extrusive rocks.
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Term
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Definition
Earth is covered by a thin “veneer” of sediment.
The veneer caps igneous and metamorphic “basement.”
Sediment cover varies in thickness from 0 to 20 km.
Thinner (or missing) where igneous and metamorphic
rocks outcrop.
Thicker in sedimentary basins.
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Term
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Definition
Breaks pre‐existing rock into small fragments
or new minerals.
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Term
in order to make sediment and sedimentary rocks, steps... |
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Definition
Weathering – Breaks pre‐existing rock into small fragments
or new minerals.
Transportation of the sediments to a sedimentary basin.
Deposition of the sediment
Burial and Lithification to make sedimentary rock.
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Term
Geologists recognize two categories of weathering.
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Definition
Physical Weathering ‐ Mechanical breakage and
disintegration of rocks.
Chemical Weathering ‐ Decomposition by reaction with
water.
Although discussed as separate processes, both work together
to break down rocks and minerals to smaller fragments or to
minerals more stable near the Earth‘s surface.
Both types are a response to the low pressure, low
temperature, and water and oxygen rich nature of the earth’s
surface.
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Term
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Definition
Mechanical breakup; doesn’t change mineral makeup.
Creates broken fragments or “detritus.”
Detrital fragments classified by size.
Coarse‐grained – Boulders, cobbles, and pebbles.
Medium‐grained – Sand‐sized.
Fine‐grained – Silt and clay (mud).
disintegration of rocks and minerals by a physical or mechanical process
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Term
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Definition
Joints are regularly spaced fractures
or cracks in rocks
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Term
Igneous plutons crack in onionlike “exfoliation” layers.
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Definition
These layers break off as sheets that slide off of a pluton.
Over time, this process creates domed remnants.
Examples: Half‐Dome (Ca.) and Stone Mountain (Ga.).
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Term
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Definition
As water percolates through fractures and
pore spaces it may contain ions that precipitate to form
crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an outward
force that can expand or weaken rocks.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Although daily heating and
cooling of rocks do not seem
to have an effect, sudden
exposure to high temperature,
such as in a forest or grass fire
may cause expansion &
eventual breakage of rock.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Plant roots can extend into fractures and
grow, causing expansion of the fracture. Growth of plants can
break rock.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Animals burrowing or moving through cracks
can break rock.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Upon
freezing, there is an
increase in the volume of the
water. As the water freezes
it expands and exerts a force
on its surroundings.
Frost wedging is more
prevalent at high altitudes
where there may be many
freeze‐thaw cycles.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Many rocks & minerals form at higher Pressure and Temperature.
At the surface of the Earth, conditions are very different from
those under which they originally formed.
Among the conditions present near the Earth‘s surface that are
different from those deep within the Earth are:
• Lower Temperature (Near the surface T = 0 ‐ 50oC)
• Lower Pressure (Near the surface P = 1 ‐ several hundred atm)
• Higher free water
• Higher free oxygen
|
|
|
Term
chemical weathering- most to least stable |
|
Definition
ron oxides
Aluminum oxides & Quartz*
Clay Minerals
Muscovite*
Alkali Feldspar*
Biotite*
Amphiboles*
Pyroxenes*
Ca‐rich plagioclase*
Olivine*
Most Stable
Least Stable
*igneous minerals
The higher the temperature of crystallization, the less stable are
these minerals at the low temperature near the Earth‘s surface.
|
|
|
Term
main agents responsible for chemical weathering reactions |
|
Definition
The main agent responsible for chemical weathering reactions
is water and weak acids formed in water.
An acid is solution that has abundant free H+ ions.
The most common weak acid that occurs in surface waters is
carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid is produced in rainwater by reaction of the
water with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosphere.
|
|
|
Term
Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions
hydrolysis
|
|
Definition
H+ or OH ‐ replaces an ion in the mineral.
|
|
|
Term
Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions
Leaching
|
|
Definition
ions are removed by dissolution into water. In
the example above we say that the K + ion was leached.
|
|
|
Term
types of chemical weathering reactions
Oxidation
|
|
Definition
Since free oxygen (O2) is more common near the
surface, it may react with minerals to change the oxidation state of
an ion. This is more common in Fe (iron) bearing minerals, since Fe
can have several oxidation states, Fe, Fe+2, Fe+3.
Deep in the Earth the most common oxidation state of Fe is Fe+2.
|
|
|
Term
Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions
Dehydration
|
|
Definition
removal of H2O or OH‐ ion from a mineral. |
|
|
Term
types chemical weath rctn
Complete Dissolution
|
|
Definition
all of the mineral is completely dissolved
by the water.
|
|
|
Term
types Chemical Weathering Reactions
Living Organisms
|
|
Definition
Organisms like plants, fungi, lichen, and bacteria
can secrete organic acids that can cause dissolution of minerals to
extract nutrients. The role of microorganisms like bacteria has only
recent been discovered.
|
|
|
Term
Interaction of Physical and Chemical Weathering
|
|
Definition
Since chemical weathering occurs on the surface, the water
and acids that control chemical weathering require access to
a surface.
Fracturing the rocks, as occurs during jointing, increases the
surface area that can be exposed to weathering and also
provides pathways for water to enter the rock.
As chemical weathering proceeds, new softer minerals, like
oxides or clay minerals, will create zones of weakness in rock
that will allow for further physical weathering.
Dissolution of minerals will remove material that holds the
rock together, thus making it weaker.
If joints and fractures form a 3‐dimensional network, the rock
will be broken into cube like pieces separated by the
fractures. Water can penetrate more easily along these
fractures, and each of the cube‐like pieces will begin to
weather inward. The rate of weathering will be greatest along
the corners of each cube, followed by the edges, and finally the
faces of the cubes.
As a result the cube will weather into a spherical shape, with
unweathered rock in the center and weathered rock toward
the outside. Such progression of weathering is referred to as
spheroidal weathering
|
|
|
Term
Factors that Influence Weathering
Rock Type and Structure
|
|
Definition
Different rocks are composed of different minerals, and each
mineral has a different susceptibility to weathering.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
If there are large
contrasts in the
susceptibility to
weathering within a large
body of rock, the more
susceptible parts of the
rock will weather faster
than the more resistant
portions of the rock. This
will result in differential
weathering. Resistant
Sandstone
Susceptible
Limestone
|
|
|
Term
Factors that Influence Weathering
Slope
|
|
Definition
On steep slopes weathering products may be quickly
washed away by rains. On gentle slopes the weathering
products accumulate. On gentle slopes water may stay in
contact with rock for longer periods of time, and thus result in
higher weathering rates.
|
|
|
Term
Factors that Influence Weathering
Climate
|
|
Definition
High amounts
of water and higher
temperatures generally
cause chemical
reactions to run
faster. Thus warm
humid climates
generally have more
highly weathered rock,
and rates of
weathering are higher
than in cold dry
climates.
|
|
|
Term
Factors that Influence Weathering
Animals
|
|
Definition
Burrowing organisms like rodents, earthworms, & ants, bring
material to the surface were it can be exposed to the agents of
weathering.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Soil consists of rock and
sediment that has been
modified by physical and
chemical interaction with
organic material and
rainwater, over time, to
produce a substrate that can
support the growth of plants.”
Soil‐forming processes require
long periods of time.
Soil may be easily destroyed
by human activities.
Soils are an important natural
resource.
They represent the interface between
the lithosphere and the biosphere ‐ as
soils provide nutrients for plants.
Soils consist of weathered rock plus
organic material that comes from
decaying plants and animals.
The same factors that control
weathering control soil formation
with the exception, that soils also
requires the input of organic material
as some form of Carbon.
When a soil develops on rock,
a soil profile develops as
shown below.
These different layers are not
the same as beds formed by
sedimentation, instead each
of the horizons forms and
grows in place by weathering
and the addition of organic
material from decaying plants
and plant roots.
|
|
|
Term
Soils
Distinct horizons reflect
soil-forming processes.
O Horizonoils
|
|
Definition
Dark
organic matter-rich
surface layer.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Organic
and mineral matter.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transitional layer
leached by organic
acids.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Organic-
poor mineral rich
layer.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Slightly
altered bedrock.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In desert climates Caliche-
(Calcite) forms in soils by
chemical precipitation of
calcite.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In humid tropical climates intense weathering involving
leaching occurs, leaving behind a soil rich in Fe & Al
oxides, and giving the soil a deep red color. This extremely
leached soil is called a laterite.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In most climates it takes between 80 and 400 years to form
about one centimeter of topsoil.
Thus soil that is eroded by poor farming practices is lost and
cannot be replaced in a reasonable amount of time.
This could become critical for world population.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
consists of fragments of rocks and minerals. |
|
|
Term
SED ROCKS
sedimentation
clastic sedimentation |
|
Definition
When the energy of the transporting current is not strong enough to carry these particles, the particles drop out in the process of sedimentation.
This type of sedimentary deposition is referred to asclastic sedimentation. |
|
|
Term
SED ROCKS
chemical sedimentation |
|
Definition
material is dissolved in water, and chemically precipitates from the water. This type of sedimentation is referred to aschemical sedimentation |
|
|
Term
SED ROCK
biogenic sedimentation |
|
Definition
A third process can occur, wherein living organisms extract ions dissolved in water to make such things as shells and bones. This type of sedimentation is calledbiogenic sedimentation. |
|
|
Term
THREE major types of sed rocks: |
|
Definition
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, and Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Clastic sedimentary particles are classified in terms of size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sediment can be transported by sliding down slopes, being picked up by the wind, or by being carried by running water in streams, rivers, or ocean currents. The distance the sediment is transported and the energy of the transporting medium all leave clues in the final sediment that tell us something about the mode of transportation.The formation of a clastic sedimentary rock involves three processes: |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sediment is deposited when the energy of the transporting medium becomes too low to continue the transport process. In other words, if the velocity of the transporting medium becomes too low to transport sediment, the sediment will fall out and become deposited. The final sediment thus reflects the energy of the transporting medium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Diagenesis is the process that turns sediment into rock. The first stage of the process is compaction. Compaction occurs as the weight of the overlying material increases. Compaction forces the grains closer together, reducing pore space and eliminating some of the contained water. Some of this water may carry mineral components in solution, and these constituents may later precipitate as new minerals in the pore spaces. This causes cementation, which will then start to bind the individual particles together. Further compaction and burial may cause recrystallization of the minerals to make the rock even harder. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In an environment where there is excess oxygen (Oxidizing Environment) organic remains will be converted to carbon dioxide and water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In an environment where there is a depletion of oxygen (Reducing Environment), organic material may be transformed to solid carbon in the form of coal, or may be converted to hydrocarbons, the source of petroleum.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the basis of density, because of the energy of the transporting medium. High energy currents can carry larger fragments. As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter fragments continue to be transported. This results in sorting due to density. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
During the transportation process, grains may be reduced in size due to abrasion. Random abrasion results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp corners and edges of grains. Thus, rounding of grains gives us clues to the amount of time a sediment has been in the transportation cycle. Rounding is classified on relative terms as well. |
|
|
Term
Chemical Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Cherts |
|
Definition
chemically precipitated SiO2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed by evaporation of sea water or lake water. Produces halite (salt) and gypsum deposits by chemical precipitation as concentration of solids increases due to water loss by evaporation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
calcite (CaCO3) is precipitated by organisms usually to form a shell or other skeletal structure. Accumulation of these skeletal remains results in a limestone. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Siliceous ooze consisting of the remains of radiolarian or diatoms can form a light colored soft rock called diatomite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
accumulation of dead plant matter in large abundance in a reducing environment (lack of oxygen). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
actually a clastic sedimentary rock that contains a high abundance of organic material that is converted to petroleum during diagenesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Alternating parallel layers having different properties. Sometimes caused by seasonal changes in deposition (Varves). i.e. lake deposits wherein coarse sediment is deposited in summer months and fine sediment is deposited in the winter when the surface of the lake is frozen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another. The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition. Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an erosional surface. Very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river deposited sediment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
As current velocity decreases, first the larger or more dense particles are deposited followed by smaller particles. This results in bedding showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the bed to the top of the bed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sediment showing a mixture of grain sizes results from such things as rockfalls, debris flows, mudflows, and deposition from melting ice. |
|
|
Term
Surface Features
Ripple Marks |
|
Definition
Characteristic of shallow water deposition. Caused by waves or winds. |
|
|
Term
Mudcracks
surface features |
|
Definition
result from the drying out of wet sediment at the surface of the Earth. The cracks form due to shrinkage of the sediment as it dries. |
|
|
Term
Surface Features
Raindrop Marks |
|
Definition
pits (or tiny craters) created by falling rain. If present, this suggests that the sediment was exposed to the surface of the Earth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Remains of once living organisms. Probably the most important indicator of the environment of deposition.
- Different species usually inhabit specific environments.
- Because life has evolved - fossils give clues to relative age of the sediment.
- Can also be important indicators of past climates.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Iron oxides and sulfides along with buried organic matter give rocks a dark color. Indicates deposition in a reducing environment.
- Deposition in oxidizing environment produces red colored iron oxides.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A sedimentary facies is a group of characteristics which reflect a sedimentary environment different from those elsewhere in the same deposit. Thus, facies may change vertically through a sequence as a result of changing environments through time. Also, facies may change laterally through a deposit as a result of changing environments with distance at the same time.
|
|
|
Term
Common Sedimentary Environments
|
|
Definition
- Stream sediments
- Lake sediments
- Glacial (ice deposited) sediments
- Eolian (wind deposited) sediments
|
|
|
Term
Common Sedimentary Environments
Continental Shelf sediments
|
|
Definition
- Estuarine sediments
- Deltaic sediments
- Beach sediments
- Carbonate shelf sediments
|
|
|
Term
Continental slope and rise sediments |
|
Definition
- Turbidites
- Deep Sea Fans
- Sediment drifts
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Deep -Sea oozes
- Land-derived sediments
|
|
|
Term
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in sedimentary rocks. In geology, however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures below 200oC and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is equivalent to about 3,000 atmospheres of pressure.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
As the temperature and/or pressure increases on a body of rock we say that the rock undergoes prograde metamorphism or that the grade of metamorphism increases. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a general term for describing the relative temperature and pressure conditions under which metamorphic rocks form. |
|
|
Term
hydrous minerals and low grade metamorphism |
|
Definition
Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to 320oC, and relatively low pressure. Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by an abundance of hydrous minerals (minerals that contain water, H2O, in their crystal structure) |
|
|
Term
Examples of hydrous minerals that occur in low grade metamorphic rocks |
|
Definition
- Clay Minerals
- Serpentine
- Chlorite
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively high pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less hydrous, by losing H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more common. |
|
|
Term
Examples of less hydrous minerals and non-hydrous minerals that characterize high grade metamorphic rocks: |
|
Definition
- Muscovite - hydrous mineral that eventually disappears at the highest grade of metamorphism
- Biotite - a hydrous mineral that is stable to very high grades of metamorphism.
- Pyroxene - a non hydrous mineral.
- Garnet - a non hydrous mineral.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
As temperature and pressure fall due to erosion of overlying rock or due to tectonic uplift, one might expect metamorphism to a follow a reverse path and eventually return the rocks to their original unmetamorphosed state. Such a process is referred to as retrograde metamorphism. If retrograde metamorphism were common, we would not commonly see metamorphic rocks at the surface of the Earth. Since we do see metamorphic rocks exposed at the Earth's surface retrograde metamorphism does not appear to be common. The reasons for this include:
- chemical reactions take place more slowly as temperature is decreased
- during prograde metamorphism, fluids such as H2O and CO2 are driven off, and these fluids are necessary to form the hydrous minerals that are stable at the Earth's surface.
- chemical reactions take place more rapidly in the presence of fluids, but if the fluids are driven off during prograde metamorphism, they will not be available to speed up reactions during retrograde metamorphism.
|
|
|
Term
FACTORS CONTROLLING METAMORPH. |
|
Definition
Metamorphism occurs because some minerals are stable only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature. When pressure and temperature change, chemical reactions occur to cause the minerals in the rock to change to an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and temperature conditions. |
|
|
Term
FACTORS THAT CONTROL META.
Temperature |
|
Definition
- Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient. Thus higher temperature can occur by burial of rock.
- Temperature can also increase due to igneous intrusion.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with depth in the Earth. Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions. It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic stress, or uniform stress. If the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
These sheet silicates will grow with their sheets orientated perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress. Preferred orientation of sheet silicates causes rocks to be easily broken along approximately parallel sheets. Such a structure is called a foliation. |
|
|
Term
Fluid Phase
FACTORS CONTROLLING META. |
|
Definition
Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rocks can potentially contain a fluid. This fluid is mostly H2O, but contains dissolved mineral matter. The fluid phase is important because chemical reactions that involve one solid mineral changing into another solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having dissolved ions transported by the fluid. Within increasing pressure of metamorphism, the pore spaces in which the fluid resides is reduced, and thus the fluid is driven off. Thus, no fluid will be present when pressure and temperature decrease and, as discussed earlier, retrograde metamorphism will be inhibited. |
|
|
Term
FACTORS CONTROLLING META.
Time |
|
Definition
The chemical reactions involved in metamorphism, along with recrystallization, and growth of new minerals are extremely slow processes. Laboratory experiments suggest that the longer the time available for metamorphism, the larger are the sizes of the mineral grains produced. Thus, coarse grained metamorphic rocks involve long times of metamorphism. Experiments suggest that the time involved is millions of years. |
|
|
Term
Responses of Rock to Increasing Metamorphic Grade
slate/ slatey cleavage |
|
Definition
Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and clay minerals. The preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily break along the planes parallel to the sheet silicates, causing a slatey cleavage. Note that in the case shown here, the maximum stress is applied at an angle to the original bedding planes, so that the slatey cleavage has developed at an angle to the original bedding. |
|
|
Term
Responses of Rock to Increasing Metamorphic Grade
Schist/schistosity
|
|
Definition
Schist - The size of the mineral grains tends to enlarge with increasing grade of metamorphism. Eventually the rock develops a near planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation of sheet silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite). Quartz and Feldspar grains, however show no preferred orientation. The irregular planar foliation at this stage is called schistosity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Gneiss As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark colored minerals like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow. These dark colored minerals tend to become segregated in distinct bands through the rock, giving the rock a gneissic banding. Because the dark colored minerals tend to form elongated crystals, rather than sheet- like crystals, they still have a preferred orientation with their long directions perpendicular to the maximum differential stress. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
At the highest grades of metamorphism all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicates become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show a preferred orientation. The resulting rock will have a granulitic texture that is similar to a phaneritic texture in igneous rocks. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros
Greenschist |
|
Definition
Olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase in an original basalt change to amphiboles and chlorite (both commonly green) as water in the pore spaces reacts with the original minerals at temperatures and pressures of low grade metamorphism. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros
Amphibolite |
|
Definition
As pressure and temperature increase to intermediate grades of metamorphism, only dark colored amphiboles and plagioclase survive and the resulting rock is called an amphibolite. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros
Granulite |
|
Definition
At the highest grade of metamorphism the amphiboles are replaced by pyroxenes and garnets, the foliation is lost and a granulite that has a granulitic texture is produced. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism of Limestone and Sandstone
Marble |
|
Definition
Since limestones are made up of essentially one mineral, Calcite, and calcite is stable over a wide range of temperature and pressure, metamorphism of limestone only causes the original calcite crystals to grow larger. Since no sheet silicates are present the resulting rock, a marble, does not show foliation. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism of Limestone and Sandstone
Quartzite |
|
Definition
Metamorphism of sandstone originally containing only quartz, results in recrystallization and growth of the quartz, producing a non foliated rock called a quartzite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
This type of metamorphism is due to mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along the zone, and the rocks tend to crushed and pulverized due to the sliding. Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the sliding occurred. |
|
|
Term
Types of Metamorphism
Burial Metamorphism |
|
Definition
When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures greater than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals grow, but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed. The main minerals produced are the Zeolites. Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis, and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase. |
|
|
Term
Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism |
|
Definition
Occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures associated with the igneous intrusion. Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma, metamorphism is restricted to a zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic aureole. Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are unmetamorphosed. The grade of metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion. Because temperature differences between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma are larger at shallow levels in the crust, contact metamorphism is usually referred to as high temperature, low pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no foliation, called a hornfels. |
|
|
Term
types of meta.
Regional Metamorphis |
|
Definition
This type of metamorphism occurs over large areas that were subjected to high degrees of deformation under differential stress. Thus, it usually results in forming metamorphic rocks that are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists, and gniesses. The differential stress usually results from tectonic forces that produce a compression of the rocks, such as when two continental masses collide with one another. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in the cores of mountain ranges or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding of the rock, as shown here, and results in thickening of the crust which tends to push rocks down to deeper levels where they are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In general, metamorphic rocks do not undergo significant changes in chemical composition during metamorphism. The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism. Thus, the mineral assemblages that are observed must be an indication of the temperature and pressure environment that the rock was subjected to. This pressure and temperature environment is referred to as metamorphic Facies. (This is similar to the concept of sedimentary facies, in that a sedimentary facies is also a set of environmental conditions present during deposition).
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The sequence of metamorphic facies observed in any metamorphic terrain, depends on the geothermal gradient that was present during metamorphism. A high geothermal gradient such as the one labeled "A" in the figure shown here, might be present around an igneous intrusion, and would result in metamorphic rocks belonging to the hornfels facies. Under a normal geothermal gradient, such as "B" in the figure, rocks would progress from zeolite facies to greenschist, amphibolite, and eclogite facies as the grade of metamorphism (or depth of burial) increased. |
|
|
Term
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics |
|
Definition
- Along zones where subduction is occurring, magmas are generated near the subduction zone and intrude into shallow levels of the crust. Because high temperature is brought near the surface, the geothermal gradient in these regions becomes high (geothermal gradient "A" in the figure above), and contact metamorphism (hornfels facies) results.
- Because compression occurs along a subduction margin (the oceanic crust moves toward the volcanic arc) rocks may be pushed down to depths along either a normal or slightly higher than normal geothermal gradient ("B" in the figure above). Actually the geothermal gradient is likely to be slightly higher than B, because the passage of magma through the crust will tend to heat the crust somewhat. In these regions we expect to see greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite facies metamorphic rocks.
- Along a subduction zone, relatively cool oceanic lithosphere is pushed down to great depths. This results in producing a low geothermal gradient (temperature increases slowly with depth). This low geothermal gradient ("C") in the diagram above, results in metamorphism into the blueschist and eclogite facies.
|
|
|
Term
Continental Rifting
global tectonics |
|
Definition
A new divergent plate boundary can form when continental lithosphere stretches, and thins to form a rift valley.As the rift widens and thins, upwelling asthenosphere can melt to produce magmas that start to create new oceanic lithosphere and spread the new plates apart (see figure 4.23 in your text)..
An example of an where rifting may be forming a future diverging plate margin is an area of northeastern Africa, called the East African Rift Valley. Another area where this is apparently occurring is the Basin and Range Province of the Western U.S.
|
|
|
Term
Continental Collisions
global tectonics |
|
Definition
When two plates that have low density continental lithosphere collide with one another subduction ceases because the continental lithosphere has too low of a density to be subducted. As the plates continue to collide fold - thrust mountain belts that develop along the zone of collision.
Currently the highest mountains in the world, the Himalayas represent this kind of event. The Himalayas resulted from a collision of the plate containing India with the plate containing Eurasia. This collision is still taking place and results in joining the two formerly separate plates. The occurrence of ancient fold -thrust mountain belts such as the Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern U.S., the Urals of Central Russia, and the Alps of southern Europe, are evidence of ancient continental collision margins. |
|
|
Term
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Definition
a substance that satisfies some, but not all of the parts of the definition. For example, opal, does not have a characteristic crystalline structure, so it is considered a mineraloid. |
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