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Geology
Undergraduate 2
02/06/2011

Additional Geology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Earth’s Magnetism

 

Definition

Earth‘s magnetic  

field is what would  

be expected if there  

were a large bar  

magnet located at  

the center of the Earth.  


The magnetic field  

is composed of lines  

of force as shown in  

the diagram here.

 

The magnetic field is thought  

to be caused by electrical  

currents generated by  

flowing iron in the outer core. 

Theory says that the  

magnetic poles should  

remain close to the pole of  

rotation of the earth. 

A compass needle points  

along the lines of force of the  

magnetic field. 

 

The lines intersect the surface  

at various angles that depend  

on position on the surface.  

This angle is called the  

magnetic inclination.  

Inclination is 0o at the  

magnetic equator & 90o at  

the magnetic poles.

 

By measuring the inclination  

& the angle to the magnetic  

pole, one can tell position on  

the Earth relative to the  

magnetic poles. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Earths Magnetism

Curie Temperature


 

Definition

 

In the 1950s it was discovered that when magnetic minerals  

cool below the Curie Temperature, domains within the  

magnetic mineral take on an orientation parallel to any external  

magnetic field present at the time they cool below this  

temperature.

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

History of Earths Magnetic field

Paleomagnetism 


 

Definition

 

Initial studies of the how  

the position of the Earth‘s  

magnetic pole varied with  

time were conducted in  

Europe. These studies  

showed that the magnetic  

pole had apparently  

moved through time. 

 

When similar measurements  

were made on rocks of  

various ages in North  

America, however, a  

different path of the  

magnetic pole was found. 

This either suggested that (a) the Earth has had more than one  

magnetic pole at various times in the past (not likely), or (b) that  

the different continents have moved relative to each other over  

time. 

 

Studies of ancient pole  

positions for other  

continents confirmed  

the latter hypothesis,  

and seemed to confirm  

the theory of  

Continental Drift. 

 

 

 

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Sea‐Floor Spreading


 

Definition

 

The purpose was to  

understand the  

topography of the  

sea floor to find  

hiding places for  

submarines.  

The topographic  

studies involved  

measuring the depth  

to the sea floor. 

 

These studies revealed the presence of two important  

topographic features of the ocean floor: 

Oceanic Ridges  & Oceanic Trenches

 

 

Term

Global Tectonics

Sea- floor spreading

Oceanic Ridges

 

Definition

 

 long sinuous ridges that occupy the middle of  

the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean.

 

These are oceanic ridges where new oceanic lithosphere is  

created by upwelling mantle that melts, resulting in basaltic  

magmas which intrude and erupt at the oceanic ridge to create  

new oceanic lithosphere and crust. 

 

 

 

 

Because the oceanic ridges are areas of young crust, there is  

very little sediment accumulation on the ridges.  

Sediment thickness increases in both directions away of the  

ridge, and is thickest where the oceanic crust is the oldest.

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Sea Floor Spreading

Oceanic Trenches

 

Definition

 

 deep trenches along the margins of  

continents, particularly surrounding the Pacific Ocean.

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Sea Floor Spreading

magnetic  

anomalies

 

Definition

 

The records from the magnetometers revealed magnetic  

anomalies on the sea floor, with magnetic high areas running  

along the oceanic ridges, and parallel bands of alternating high  

and low magnetism on either side of the oceanic ridges.

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Sea-Floor spreading

Reversals of the Earth‘s Magnetic Field 

 

Definition

 

By dating the rocks by radiometric  

techniques and correlating the  

reversals throughout the world  

they were able to establish the  

magnetic time scale.

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Sea‐Floor Spreading 2

 

Definition

 

As this magma cooled it  

took on the magnetism  

of the magnetic field at  

the time.  

When the polarity of the  

field changed new crust  

and lithosphere created  

at the ridge would take  

on the  different polarity.  

This hypothesis led to  

the theory of sea floor  

spreading. 

 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Divergent Plate boundaries

 

Definition

 

where plates move away from  

each other.  


 

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Convergent Plate Boundaries

 

Definition

 

where plates move toward  

each other.  


When a plate of dense oceanic lithosphere moving in one direction collides with a plate moving in the opposite direction, one of the plates subducts beneath the other. Where this occurs an oceanic trench forms on the sea floor and the sinking plate becomes a subduction zone. The Wadati-Benioff Zone, a zone of earthquakes located along the subduction zone, identifies a subduction zone. The earthquakes may extend down to depths of 700 km before the subducting plate heats up and loses its ability to deform in a brittle fashion.

As the oceanic plate subducts, it begins to heat up causing the release water of water into the overlying mantle asthenosphere. The water reduces the melting temperature and results in the production of magmas. These magmas rise to the surface and create a volcanic arc parallel to the trench.

If the subduction occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, an island arc is produced at the surface (such as the Japanese islands, the Aleutian Islands, the Philippine islands, or the Caribbean islands

If the subduction occurs beneath continental crust, a continental volcanic arc is produced (such as the Cascades of the western U.S., or the Andes mountains of the South America)

Term

 

Global Tectonics

Transform Plate Boundaries,

 

Definition

 

where plates slide past one  

another.  

Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a horizontal manner, a transform fault is created. Earthquakes along such transform faults are shallow focus earthquakes.

Most transform faults occur where oceanic ridges are offset on the sea floor. Such offset occurs because spreading takes place on the spherical surface of the Earth, and some parts of a plate must be moving at a higher relative velocity than other parts One of the largest such transform boundaries occurs along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates and is known as the San Andreas Fault. Here the transform fault cuts through continental lithosphere


 

Term

 

subducts- GLOBAL TECTONICS

 

Definition

 

When a plate of dense oceanic lithosphere moving in one  

direction collides with a plate moving in the opposite direction,  

one of the plates subducts beneath the other.

 

Term

subduction zone

Definition

Where this occurs an oceanic trench forms on the sea floor  

and the sinking plate becomes a subduction zone.

Term

Wadati‐Benioff zone

Definition

A zone of earthquakes – the  

Wadati‐Benioff zone  that  

extend downward along the  

subduction zone, identifies  

subduction zones. 

The earthquakes may  

extend down to depths of  

700 km before the  

subducting plate heats up  

and loses its ability to  

deform in a brittle fashion.

Term

island arc

Definition

If the subduction occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, an  

island arc is produced at the surface (such as the Japanese  

islands, the Aleutian Islands, the Philippine islands, or the  

Caribbean islands 


Term

continental  

volcanic arc

Definition

If the subduction occurs beneath continental crust, a continental  

volcanic arc is produced (such as the Cascades of the western  

U.S., or the Andes mountains of the South America) 


Term

accretionary prism.

Definition

This will break the  

rocks up into a  

chaotic mixture of  

broken, jumbled, and  

thrust faulted rock  

known as an  

accretionary prism.

Term

transform fault

Definition

Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a  

horizontal manner, a transform fault is created. 

Term

Triple Junctions

Definition

occur at points where thee plates meet.

Term

 

What Causes Plate Tectonics? 


 

Definition

 

From seismic wave velocities we know that the asthenosphere  

behaves in ductile manner, that is even though it is solid it can  

flow under stress and behave like a liquid.  

If this is the case, then it can also convect.  

Convection is a mode of heat transfer wherein the heat moves  

with the material.  

Convection is caused when material that occurs at a deeper  

level is heated to the point where it expands and becomes less  

dense than the material above it.  

When this occurs, the hot  

less dense material rises.  

Rising hot material will  

eventually cool and  

become denser than its  

surroundings.  

This cool dense material  

must then sink.  

This gives rise to convection cells, with hot rising currents and  

cool descending currents.

 

 

If the asthenosphere is in fact moving as a result of convection,  

then convection could be the mechanism responsible for plate  

tectonics. Hot rising currents would occur beneath oceanic  

ridges.

 

Magma intruding into the ridge would push lithosphere apart  

at the ridge. 

As the new lithosphere cools, it will slide off the topographic  

high that results from the upwelling of the mantle and will  

eventually become cold and dense. 

 

 

Term

Developed societies depend on mineral resources. 

Metals and non metals

Definition

Metals – Iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, aluminum, etc.

Non‐metals – Gypsum, limestone, aggregate, clay

Term

Geologic definition of a mineral is specialized: 

Definition

Naturally occurring. 

Solid. 

Formed geologically. 

Definite chemical  

composition.  

Ordered atomic  

arrangement.  

Mostly inorganic. 


Term

noble gasses

 

Definition

Noble gases have completely filled outer shells, so they are  

stable.

Term

The Silicate Minerals 

Definition

The most common minerals are those based on Si and O:  the  

Silicates.  

Silicates are based on SiO4‐4tetrahedron.

Silica tetrahedralink together by sharing oxygens. 

More shared oxygen = lower Si:Oratio; governs… 

Melting temperature. 

Mineral structure and cationspresent.  

Susceptibility to chemical weathering.  

Tetrahedra share no oxygens linked by cations.

2‐dimensional sheets of linked tetrahedra. 

Characterized by one direction of perfect cleavage. 

 

Term

Mica Group

silicate minerals

Definition

 Biotite (dark) and Mucsovite (light).

Term

Clay Mineral Group

silicate minerals

Definition

 Feldspar weathering residue; tiny.

Term

Congruent streak

Definition

 Streak color same as mineral.  

Magnetite – Black mineral; black streak.

Term

Incongruent streak

Definition

 Streak color different than mineral. 

Chromite – Black mineral; greenish‐brown streak. 

Term

Luster 

Definition

The way a mineral scatters light. 

Two subdivisions.   

Metallic – Looks like a metal. 

Nonmetallic. 

Vitreous (glassy). 

Satiny. 

Silky. 

Resinous. 

Pearly. 

Earthy (dull).  

Adamantine (brilliant). 

Quartz – Vitreous luster 

Quartz – Vitreous luster

Term

Cleavage

Definition

Tendency to break along planes of weakness.  

Cleavage produces flat, shiny surfaces. 

Described by number of planes and their angles. 

Sometimes mistaken for crystal habit.   

Cleavage is through‐going; often forms parallel “steps.” 

Crystal habit is only on external surfaces.  

1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 cleavages possible.  


Term
HARDNESS order
Definition

Talc, Graphite 

2. Gypsum 

3. Calcite 

4. Fluorite 

5. Apatite 

6. Orthoclase  

7. Quartz 

8. Topaz 

9. Corundum 

10. Diamond

Term

 

Chemical composition

gasses in magma

 

Definition

 

Mostly H2O (water vapor) & some CO2 (carbon dioxide) 

Minor amounts of Sulfur, Chlorine, & Fluorine gases 

1. Basaltic or Gabbroic- high in fe, mg, ca low in k, na

2. Andesitic or Dioritic- intermediate in fe mg ca na k

3. Rhyolitic or Granitic- low in fe mg ca high in k na

 

Term

The amount of gas

gasses in magmas

Definition

Related to the chemical composition of the magma – 

Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than  

mafic magmas.

Term

 

geothermal gradient

 

Definition

 

Temperature increases with depth in the earth along the  

geothermal gradient. 

Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient is not high  

enough to melt rocks, and thus most of the Earth is solid. 

 

Term

The earth is hot inside due to

Definition

heat left over from the  

original accretion process 

heat released by sinking  

of materials to form the  

core 

heat released by the  

decay of radioactive  

elements.

Term

 

dry melting

 

Definition

 

Temperature 

Solid Liquid 

With No (H2O) or CO2 present  ‐ 

melting occurs at a single  

temperature at any given pressure.   

Melting temperature increases  

with increasing pressure or depth  

in the Earth. Called dry melting. 

temperatures  

increase with increasing  

pressure, except range of  

temperature over which there  

exists a partial melt.  

Solid 

Liquid 

Crystals 

Liquid 

+ 

(Partial Melt) 


 

Term

 

 wet melting

 

Definition

 

Solid + 

Vapor Liquid + 

Vapor 

With H2O or CO2 present melting  

takes place at a single temperature  

at any given pressure, but first  

decreases with increasing  

pressure.   Called wet melting.

range of  

temperature range over  

which partial melting  

occurs.   

Temperature of  

beginning of melting first  

decreases with  

increasing pressure or  

depth, then at high  

pressure or depth  

melting temperatures  

again begin to riseTemperature 

Solid + 

Vapor Liquid + 

Vapor 

Liquid 

+ 

Crystals 

(Partial Melt) 

+ 

Vapor

 

Term

 

Decompression Melting

 

Definition

 

 If hot solid mantle material rises to lower  

pressure or depth, carrying its heat with it,  the new local  

geothermal gradient could become higher than the initial melting  

temperature and a partial melt will form. Thus, generation of magma in these three environments is likely  

caused by decompression melting.  

 

Term

Transfer of Heat

Definition

When magmas  

generated by some other  

mechanism intrude into crust, they  

bring with them heat.

Term

Flux Melting

Definition

If water or carbon dioxide are added to rock, the  

melting temperature is lowered. 

If the addition takes place deep in the earth where the temperature  

is already high, the lowering of melting temperature could cause the  

rock to partially melt to generate magma.

Term

Water introduced at subduction zones.

Definition

Water present in the pore spaces of the subducting sea floor or in  

minerals ‐ hornblende, biotite, or clay minerals ‐ released by the rising  

temperature and then moves into overlying Mantle. 


Term

Magmas vary chemically due to… 

Definition

Initial source rock compositions. 

Partial melting. 

Assimilation. 

Mixing 

Fractional crystallization.

Term

Initial Composition of Magma 

Definition

The initial composition of the  

magma is dictated by the  

composition of the source rock and  

the degree of partial melting. 

In general, melting of a mantle  

source (garnet peridotite) results in  

mafic/basaltic magmas. 

Melting of crustal sources yields  

more siliceous magmas. 

Term

Magmatic Differentiation 

Definition

Processes that operate during transportation  

toward the surface or during storage in the  

crust can alter the chemical composition of the  

magma. 

These processes are referred to as magmatic  

differentiation and include assimilation 

mixing, and crystal fractionation

Term

Assimilation

Definition

As magma passes  

through cooler rock it may  

partially melt the surrounding  

rock and incorporate this melt  

into the magma. 


Term

Mixing

Definition

 If two magmas with different  

compositions happen to come in contact  

with one another, they could mix together. 

The mixed magma will have a composition  

somewhere between that of the original  

two magma compositions. 

Evidence for mixing is often preserved in  

the resulting rocks. 

Term

Fractional Crystallization


Definition

 When magma crystallizes it does so  

over a range of temperature.  

Each mineral begins to crystallize at a different temperature, and  

if these minerals are somehow removed from the liquid, the  

liquid composition will change. 

The processes is called magmatic differentiation by Fractional Crystallization.

Term

Chemical Composition of Magmas

Definition

Crystals can be removed by a variety of  

processes.  

If the crystals are more dense than the  

liquid, they may sink.  

If they are less dense than the liquid  

they will float.  

If liquid is squeezed out by pressure,  

then crystals will be left behind. 

Term

Bowen’s Reaction Series

Definition

As a mafic/basaltic magma is cooled Olivine and Ca‐rich plagioclase  

crystallize first. 

Upon further cooling, Olivine reacts with the liquid to produce  

pyroxene and Ca‐rich plagioclase react with the liquid to produce  

less Ca‐rich plagioclase.

But, if the olivine and Ca‐rich plagioclase are removed from the  

liquid by crystal fractionation, then the remaining liquid will be  

more SiO2 rich. 

If process continues, an original mafic/basaltic magma changes to  

andesite magma then a rhyolite magma with falling temperatur

Term

 

Non‐explosive eruptions

 

 

Definition

 

favored by low gas content and low  

viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas and sometimes  

rhyolitic magma). 

Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved  

gases. 

  • Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved gases 
  • Produce lava flows on surface 
  • Produce Pillow lavas if erupted beneath water


 

Term

pyroclastic flow

Definition

If eruption column collapses a  

pyroclastic flow may occur,  

wherein gas and tephra rush  

down the flanks of the volcano  

at high speed.

Term

ignimbrites

Definition

This is the most dangerous  

type of volcanic eruption. The  

deposits that are produced are  

called ignimbrites.

Term

Intrusive Environments

Definition

When magma intrudes it usually affects the surrounding rock and  

is also affected by the surrounding rock. It may metamorphose  

the surrounding rocks or cause hydrothermal alteration. The  

magma itself may also cool rapidly near the contact with the  

surrounding rock and thus show a chilled margin next to the  

contact.

Term

 xenoliths 

Definition

It may also incorporate pieces of the surrounding rocks without  

melting them. These incorporated pieces are called xenoliths 

(foreign rocks).  


Term

Dikes 

Definition

Dikes are small (<20 m wide) shallow intrusions that show a  

discordant relationship to the rocks in which they  

intrude. Discordant means that they cut across preexisting  

structures.

Term

Sills

Definition

Sills are also small (<50 m thick) shallow intrusions that show a  

concordant relationship with the rocks that they intrude. Sills  

usually are fed by dikes, but these may not be exposed in the field.

Term

Laccoliths

Definition

Laccoliths are somewhat large intrusions that result in uplift and  

folding of the preexisting rocks above the intrusion. They are also  

concordant types of intrusions

Term

Plutons

Definition

Plutons are large intrusive bodies, of any shape that intrude in  

replace rocks in an irregular fashion.

Term

Stocks

Definition

Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely fed from deeper level  

batholiths. Stocks may have been feeders for volcanic eruptions,  

but because large amounts of erosion are required to expose a  

stock or batholith, the associated volcanic rocks are rarely exposed.

Term

batholith

Definition

If multiple intrusive events  

occur in the same part of the  

crust, the body that forms is  

called a batholith. 

Several large batholiths occur in  

the western U.S. ‐ The Sierra  

Nevada Batholith, the Coast  

Range Batholith, and the Idaho  

Batholith, for example

Term

aphanitic texture

Definition

Fast cooling on the surface  

results in many small crystals  

or quenching to a glass. Gives  

rise to aphanitic texture 

(crystals cannot be  

distinguished with the naked  

eye)

Term

phaneritic texture

Definition

Slow cooling at depth in the  

earth results in fewer much  

larger crystals, gives rise to  

phaneritic texture.

Term

Porphyritic texture

Definition

 develops  

when slow cooling is followed  

by rapid cooling.

Term

Phenocrysts

Definition

larger crystals, matrix or  

groundmass = smaller crystals

Term

 

Classification of Igneous Rocks 

 

Definition

 

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and  

chemical composition, usually as reflected in the minerals that  

from due to crystallization. 

You will explore the classification of igneous rocks in the  

laboratory portion of this course.

Basalts, Andesites,  

and Rhyolites are  

types of volcanic  

rock distinguished  

on the basis of their  

mineral assemblage  

and chemical  

compostion. 

These rocks tend to  

be fine grained to  

glassy or  

porphyritic. 

 

Term

Pumice

Definition

 light colored and light  

weight rock consisting of  

mostly holes (vesicles) that  

were once occupied by gas,  

Usually rhyolitic or andesitic.

Term

Scoria

Definition

 rock filled with holes  

(like Swiss cheese) or vesicles  

that were once occupied by  

gas. Usually basaltic and  

andesitic.

Term

Pyroclasts

Definition

hot, broken  

fragments. Result from  

explosively ripping apart of  

magma.  


Term

tephra

Definition

Loose assemblages of  

pyroclasts called tephra 

Depending on size, tephra can  

be classified as bombs. lapilli,  

or ash.

Term

pyroclastic rock

Definition

Rock formed by accumulation and cementation of tephra called a  

pyroclastic rock or tuff. Welding, compaction and deposition of  

other grains cause tephra (loose material) to be converted in  

pyroclastic rock.  


Term

 

Large Igneous Provinces

 

Definition

 

Such large volume eruptions can have affects on the oceans  

because they change the shape of ocean floor and cause a rise in  

sea level, that sometimes floods the continents. 

The plateaus form obstructions which can drastically change  

ocean currents. 

These changes in the ocean along with massive amounts of gas  

released by the magmas can alter climate and have drastic  

effects on life on the planet.

In the past, large volumes of mostly basaltic magma have  

erupted on the sea floor to form large volcanic plateaus, such as  

the Ontong Java Plateau in the eastern Pacific.

 

Term

 

Rift Valleys

 

Definition

 

An excellent example of a  

continental rift valley is  

the East African Rift.

Rising mantle beneath a continent can result in extensional  

fractures in the continental crust to form a rift valley. 

As the mantle rises it undergoes partial melting by decompression,  

resulting in the production of basaltic magmas which may erupt as  

flood basalts on the surface. 

Melts that get trapped in  

the crust can release heat  

resulting in melting of the  

crust to form rhyolitic 

magmas that can also  

erupt at the surface in the  

rift valley. 



 

Term

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Definition

Occasionally a hot spot is coincident with an oceanic ridge. In  

such a case, the hot spot produces larger volumes of magma  

than normally occur at ridge and thus build a volcanic island on  

the ridge.

Term

Hot Spots 

Definition

A hot spot located beneath a continent can result in heat  

transfer melting of the continental crust to produce large  

rhyolitic volcanic centers and plutonic granitic plutons below.

A good example of a  

continental hot spot is at  

Yellowstone in the  

western U.S. 

As the overriding plate moves over the hot spot, the volcano  

moves off of the hot spot and a new volcano forms over the hot  

spot. 

This produces a hot spot  

track consisting of lines  

of extinct volcanoes  

leading to the active  

volcano at the hot spot. 

As discussed previously, hot spots are places are places where  

hot mantle ascends toward the surface as plumes of hot rock. 

Decompression melting in these rising plumes results in the  

production of magmas which erupt to form a volcano on the  

surface or sea floor, eventually building a volcanic island.

Term

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Definition

Subduction introduces water into the mantle above the  

subduction causing flux melting to produce basaltic magmas. 

These rise toward the surface differentiating by assimilation and  

crystal fractionation to produce andesitic & rhyolitic magmas that  

erupt to form Island Arcs and Continental Margin arcs. 

Magmas that intrude  

beneath the arcs can cause  

crustal melting and form  

plutons and batholiths of  

diorite and granite 


Term

Distribution of Igneous Activity

Definition

Igneous activity is currently taking place as it has in the past in  

various tectonic settings. These include diverging and  

converging plate boundaries, hot spots, and rift valleys. 

Term

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Definition

Coarse grained rocks,  

formed at deeper  

levels in the earth  

include gabbros,  

diorites, and  

granites. 

These are chemically  

equivalent to basalts,  

andesites, and  

rhyolites. 

Shallow intrusions like dikes and  

sills are usually fine grained and  

sometimes porphyritic because  

cooling rates are similar to those  

of extrusive rocks. 

Classification is similar to the  

classification for  

volcanic/extrusive rocks.

Term
veneer 
Definition

Earth is covered by a thin “veneer” of sediment. 

The veneer caps igneous and metamorphic “basement.”  

Sediment cover varies in thickness from 0 to 20 km. 

Thinner (or missing) where igneous and metamorphic  

rocks outcrop. 

Thicker in sedimentary basins. 


Term

Weathering

Definition

 Breaks pre‐existing rock into small fragments  

or new minerals.

Term
in order to make sediment and sedimentary rocks, steps...
Definition

Weathering – Breaks pre‐existing rock into small fragments  

or new minerals. 

Transportation of the sediments to a sedimentary basin. 

Deposition of the sediment 

Burial and Lithification to make sedimentary rock.

Term

Geologists recognize two categories of weathering. 


Definition

Physical Weathering ‐ Mechanical breakage and  

disintegration of rocks.  

Chemical Weathering ‐ Decomposition by reaction with  

water.  

Although discussed as separate processes, both work together  

to break down rocks and minerals to smaller fragments or to  

minerals more stable near the Earth‘s surface. 

Both types are a response to the low pressure, low  

temperature, and water and oxygen rich nature of the earth’s  

surface. 


Term

 

Physical Weathering

 

Definition

 

Mechanical breakup; doesn’t change mineral makeup. 

Creates broken fragments or “detritus.” 

Detrital fragments classified by size. 

Coarse‐grained – Boulders, cobbles, and pebbles. 

Medium‐grained – Sand‐sized. 

Fine‐grained – Silt and clay (mud). 

disintegration of rocks and minerals by a physical or mechanical process

 

Term

Development of Joints

Definition

Joints are regularly spaced fractures  

or cracks in rocks 


Term

Igneous plutons crack in onionlike “exfoliation” layers.

Definition

These layers break off as sheets that slide off of a pluton.  

Over time, this process creates domed remnants.    

Examples:  Half‐Dome (Ca.) and Stone Mountain (Ga.). 

Term

Crystal Growth 

Definition

 As water percolates through fractures and  

pore spaces it may contain ions that precipitate to form  

crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an outward  

force that can expand or weaken rocks. 

Term

Thermal Expansion

Definition

Although daily heating and  

cooling of rocks  do not seem  

to have an effect, sudden  

exposure to high temperature,  

such as in a forest or grass fire  

may cause expansion &  

eventual breakage of rock.

Term

Root Wedging

Definition

 Plant roots can extend into fractures and  

grow, causing expansion of the fracture.  Growth of plants can  

break rock. 


Term

Animal Activity

Definition

 Animals burrowing or moving through cracks  

can break rock. 


Term

Frost Wedging

Definition

 Upon  

freezing, there is an   

increase in the volume of the  

water.  As the water freezes  

it expands and exerts a force  

on its surroundings.  

Frost wedging is more  

prevalent at high altitudes  

where there may be many  

freeze‐thaw cycles. 


Term

Chemical Weathering

Definition

Many rocks & minerals form at higher Pressure and Temperature.   

At the surface of the Earth, conditions are very different from  

those under which they originally formed.   

Among the conditions present near the Earth‘s surface that are  

different from those deep within the Earth are: 

Lower Temperature (Near the surface T = 0 ‐ 50oC) 

Lower Pressure (Near the surface P = 1 ‐ several hundred atm) 

Higher free water  

Higher free oxygen 


Term
chemical weathering- most to least stable
Definition

ron oxides 

Aluminum oxides &  Quartz* 

Clay Minerals 

Muscovite* 

Alkali Feldspar* 

Biotite* 

Amphiboles* 

Pyroxenes* 

Ca‐rich plagioclase* 

Olivine* 

Most Stable 

Least Stable 

*igneous minerals 

The higher the temperature of crystallization, the less stable are  

these minerals at the low temperature near the Earth‘s surface.

Term
main agents responsible for chemical weathering reactions
Definition

The main agent responsible for chemical weathering reactions  

is water and weak acids formed in water. 

An acid is solution that has abundant free H+ ions. 

The most common weak acid that occurs in surface waters is  

carbonic acid. 

Carbonic acid is produced in rainwater by reaction of the  

water with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosphere. 

Term

Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions 

hydrolysis

Definition

H+ or OH replaces an ion in the mineral.   


Term

Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions 

Leaching

Definition

 ions are removed by dissolution into water.  In  

the example above we say that the K + ion was leached. 

Term

types of chemical weathering reactions

Oxidation

Definition

 Since free oxygen (O2) is more common near the   

surface, it may react with minerals to change the oxidation state of  

an ion.  This is more common in Fe (iron) bearing minerals, since Fe  

can have several oxidation states, Fe, Fe+2, Fe+3.   

Deep in the Earth the most common oxidation state of Fe is Fe+2.

Term

Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions 

Dehydration

Definition
removal of H2O or OH ion from a mineral.
Term

types chemical weath rctn

Complete Dissolution

Definition

 all of the mineral is completely dissolved  

by the water. 


Term

types Chemical Weathering Reactions

Living Organisms

Definition

 Organisms like plants, fungi, lichen, and bacteria  

can secrete organic acids that can cause dissolution of minerals to  

extract nutrients. The role of microorganisms like bacteria has only  

recent been discovered.  

Term

Interaction of Physical and Chemical Weathering 

Definition

Since chemical weathering occurs on the surface, the water  

and acids that control chemical weathering require access to  

a surface. 

Fracturing the rocks, as occurs during jointing, increases the  

surface area that can be exposed to weathering and also  

provides pathways for water to enter the rock. 

As chemical weathering proceeds, new softer minerals, like  

oxides or clay minerals, will create zones of weakness in rock  

that will allow for further physical weathering. 

Dissolution of minerals will remove material that holds the  

rock together, thus making it weaker.

If joints and fractures form a 3‐dimensional network, the rock  

will be broken into cube like pieces separated by the  

fractures. Water can penetrate more easily along these  

fractures, and each of the cube‐like pieces will begin to  

weather inward. The rate of weathering will be greatest along  

the corners of each cube, followed by the edges, and finally the  

faces of the cubes. 

As a result the cube will weather into a spherical shape, with  

unweathered rock in the center and weathered rock toward  

the outside. Such progression of weathering is referred to as  

spheroidal weathering

Term

Factors that Influence Weathering 

Rock Type and Structure

Definition

Different rocks are composed of different minerals, and each  

mineral has a different susceptibility to weathering.   


Term

 differential  

weathering 


Definition

If there are large  

contrasts in the  

susceptibility to  

weathering within a large  

body of rock, the more  

susceptible parts of the  

rock will weather faster  

than the more resistant  

portions of the rock. This  

will result in differential  

weatheringResistant 

Sandstone 

Susceptible 

Limestone 


Term

Factors that Influence Weathering

Slope

Definition

 On steep slopes weathering products may be quickly  

washed away by rains. On gentle slopes the weathering  

products accumulate. On gentle slopes water may stay in  

contact with rock for longer periods of time, and thus result in  

higher weathering rates.  


Term

Factors that Influence Weathering 

Climate

Definition

 High amounts  

of water and higher  

temperatures generally  

cause chemical  

reactions to run  

faster. Thus warm  

humid climates  

generally have more  

highly weathered rock,  

and rates of  

weathering are higher  

than in cold dry  

climates.

Term

Factors that Influence Weathering 

Animals

Definition

Burrowing organisms like rodents, earthworms, & ants, bring  

material to the surface were it can be exposed to the agents of  

weathering.

Term
SOILS
Definition

Soil consists of rock and  

sediment that has been  

modified by physical and  

chemical interaction with  

organic material and  

rainwater, over time, to  

produce a substrate that can  

support the growth of plants.” 

Soil‐forming processes require  

long periods of time.  

Soil may be easily destroyed  

by human activities. 

Soils are an important natural  

resource. 

They represent the interface between  

the lithosphere and the biosphere ‐ as  

soils provide nutrients for plants. 

Soils consist of weathered rock plus  

organic material that comes from  

decaying plants and animals. 

The same factors that control  

weathering control soil formation  

with the exception, that soils also  

requires the input of organic material  

as some form of Carbon.

When a soil develops on rock,  

a soil profile develops as  

shown below. 

These different layers are not  

the same as beds formed by  

sedimentation, instead each  

of the horizons forms and  

grows in place by weathering  

and the addition of organic  

material from decaying plants  

and plant roots.

Term

Soils 

Distinct horizons reflect 

soil-forming processes. 

O Horizonoils

Definition

Dark 

organic matter-rich 

surface layer. 

Term

A Horizon 

Definition

Organic 

and mineral matter.

Term

E Horizon

Definition

Transitional layer 

leached by organic 

acids.  


Term

B Horizon

Definition

Organic- 

poor mineral rich 

layer. 


Term

C Horizon

Definition

Slightly 

altered bedrock. 


Term

Caliche

Definition

In desert climates Caliche- 

(Calcite) forms in soils by 

chemical precipitation of 

calcite. 


Term

laterite

Definition

In humid tropical climates intense weathering involving 

leaching occurs, leaving behind a soil rich in Fe & Al 

oxides, and giving the soil a deep red color.  This extremely 

leached soil is called a laterite. 


Term

Soil Erosion

Definition

In most climates it takes between 80 and 400 years to form 

about one centimeter of topsoil. 

Thus soil that is eroded by poor farming practices is lost and 

cannot be replaced in a reasonable amount of time.  

This could become critical for world population. 


Term
SED ROCKS detritus
Definition
consists of fragments of rocks and minerals.
Term

SED ROCKS 

sedimentation

clastic sedimentation

Definition

When the energy of the transporting current is not strong enough to carry these particles, the particles drop out in the process of sedimentation

This type of sedimentary deposition is referred to asclastic sedimentation.

Term

SED ROCKS

chemical sedimentation

Definition
material is dissolved in water, and chemically precipitates from the water. This type of sedimentation is referred to aschemical sedimentation
Term

SED ROCK

biogenic sedimentation

Definition
A third process can occur, wherein living organisms extract  ions dissolved in water to make such things as shells and bones.  This type of sedimentation is calledbiogenic sedimentation.
Term
THREE major types of sed rocks:
Definition
Clastic Sedimentary RocksChemical Sedimentary Rocks, and Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks
Term
Classification 
Definition
Clastic sedimentary particles are classified in terms of size
Term
Transportation
Definition
Sediment can be transported by sliding down slopes, being picked up by the wind, or by being carried by running water in streams, rivers, or ocean currents. The distance the sediment is transported and the energy of the transporting medium all leave clues in the final sediment that tell us something about the mode of transportation.The formation of a clastic sedimentary rock involves three processes:
Term
Deposition
Definition
Sediment is deposited when the energy of the transporting medium becomes too low to continue the transport process. In other words, if the velocity of the transporting medium becomes too low to transport sediment, the sediment will fall out and become deposited. The final sediment thus reflects the energy of the transporting medium. 
Term
Diagenesis
Definition
Diagenesis is the process that turns sediment into rock. The first stage of the process is compaction. Compaction occurs as the weight of the overlying material increases. Compaction forces the grains closer together, reducing pore space and eliminating some of the contained water. Some of this water may carry mineral components in solution, and these constituents may later precipitate as new minerals in the pore spaces. This causes cementation, which will then start to bind the individual particles together. Further compaction and burial may cause recrystallization of the minerals to make the rock even harder.  
Term
OXIDIZING ENVIRONMENT
Definition
In an environment where there is excess oxygen (Oxidizing Environment) organic remains will be converted to carbon dioxide and water. 
Term
REDUCING ENVIRONMENT
Definition

In an environment where there is a depletion of oxygen (Reducing Environment), organic material may be transformed to solid carbon in the form of coal, or may be converted to hydrocarbons, the source of petroleum.


Term
Sorting
Definition
The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the basis of density, because of  the energy of the transporting medium.  High energy currents can carry larger fragments.  As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter fragments continue to be transported.  This results in sorting due to density.   
Term
Definition
During the transportation process, grains may be reduced in size due to abrasion.  Random abrasion results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp corners and edges of grains.  Thus, rounding of grains gives us clues to the amount of time a sediment has been in the transportation cycle.  Rounding is classified on relative terms as well.
Term

Chemical Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Cherts

Definition
chemically precipitated SiO2
Term
Evaporites
Definition
formed by evaporation of sea water or lake water.  Produces halite (salt) and gypsum deposits by chemical precipitation as concentration of solids increases due to water loss by evaporation. 
Term
Limestone
Definition
calcite (CaCO3) is precipitated by organisms usually to form a shell or other skeletal structure.  Accumulation of these skeletal remains results in a limestone.
Term
Diatomite
Definition
Siliceous ooze consisting of the remains of radiolarian or diatoms can form a light colored soft rock called diatomite.
Term
Coal
Definition
accumulation of dead plant matter in large abundance in a reducing environment (lack of oxygen).
Term
Oil Shale
Definition
actually a clastic sedimentary rock that contains a high abundance of organic material that is converted to petroleum during diagenesis. 
Term
Definition
Alternating parallel layers having different properties.  Sometimes caused by seasonal changes in deposition (Varves). i.e. lake deposits wherein coarse sediment is deposited in summer months and fine sediment is deposited in the winter when the surface of the lake is frozen.
Term
Cross Bedding
Definition
 Sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another.  The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition.  Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an erosional surface. Very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river deposited sediment.
Term
Graded Bedding 
Definition
As current velocity decreases, first the larger or more dense particles are deposited followed by smaller particles.  This results in bedding showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the bed to the top of the bed.
Term
Non-sorted Sediment -
Definition
Sediment showing a mixture of grain sizes results from such things as rockfalls, debris flows, mudflows, and deposition from melting ice.
Term

Surface Features

Ripple Marks 

Definition
Characteristic of shallow water deposition.  Caused by waves or winds.
Term

Mudcracks

surface features

Definition
result from the drying out of wet sediment at the surface of the Earth.  The cracks form due to shrinkage of the sediment as it dries.
Term

Surface Features

Raindrop Marks

Definition
pits (or tiny craters) created by falling rain. If present, this suggests that the sediment was exposed to the surface of the Earth.
Term

surface features

fossils

Definition

Remains of once living organisms.  Probably the most important indicator of the environment of deposition.

  • Different species usually inhabit specific environments. 
  • Because life has evolved - fossils give clues to relative age of the sediment. 
  • Can also be important indicators of past climates. 

Term
Color
Definition

  • Iron oxides and sulfides along with buried organic matter give rocks a dark color.  Indicates deposition in a reducing environment. 
  • Deposition in oxidizing environment produces red colored iron oxides. 

Term

Sedimentary Facies


Definition

sedimentary facies is a group of characteristics which reflect a sedimentary environment different from those elsewhere in the same deposit. Thus, facies may change vertically through a sequence as a result of changing environments through time. Also, facies may change laterally through a deposit as a result of changing environments with distance at the same time.

 

Term

Common Sedimentary Environments

  • Non-marine environments

Definition

  • Stream sediments 
  • Lake sediments 
  • Glacial (ice deposited) sediments 
  • Eolian (wind deposited) sediments 

Term

Common Sedimentary Environments

Continental Shelf sediments

Definition

  • Estuarine sediments 
  • Deltaic sediments 
  • Beach sediments 
  • Carbonate shelf sediments 

Term
Continental slope and rise sediments 
Definition

  • Turbidites 
  • Deep Sea Fans 
  • Sediment drifts 

Term
Deep Sea Sediments 
Definition

  • Deep -Sea oozes 
  • Land-derived sediments

Term
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
Definition
Term
Metamorphism
Definition
changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed.
Term
Diagenesis
Definition
Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in sedimentary rocks.  In geology, however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures below 200oC and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is equivalent to about 3,000 atmospheres of pressure.
Term
prograde metamorphism
Definition
As the temperature and/or  pressure increases on a body of rock we say that the rock undergoes prograde metamorphism or that the grade of metamorphism increases.
Term
Metamorphic grade
Definition
a general term for describing the relative temperature and pressure conditions under which metamorphic rocks form.
Term
hydrous minerals and low grade metamorphism
Definition
Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to 320oC, and relatively low pressure.  Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by an abundance of hydrous minerals (minerals that contain water, H2O, in their crystal structure)
Term
Examples of hydrous minerals that occur in low grade metamorphic rocks
Definition

  • Clay Minerals 
  • Serpentine 
  • Chlorite 

Term
high grade metamorphism
Definition
High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively high pressure.  As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less hydrous, by losing H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more common. 
Term
Examples of less hydrous minerals and non-hydrous minerals that characterize high grade metamorphic rocks:
Definition

  • Muscovite - hydrous mineral that eventually disappears at the highest grade of metamorphism 
  • Biotite - a hydrous mineral that is stable to very high grades of metamorphism.
  • Pyroxene - a non hydrous mineral. 
  • Garnet - a non hydrous mineral. 

Term
retrograde metamorphism
Definition

As temperature and pressure fall due to erosion of overlying rock or due to tectonic uplift, one might expect metamorphism to a follow a reverse path and eventually return the rocks to their original unmetamorphosed state.  Such a process is referred to as retrograde metamorphism.  If retrograde metamorphism were common, we would not commonly see metamorphic rocks at the surface of the Earth.  Since we do see metamorphic rocks exposed at the Earth's surface retrograde metamorphism does not appear to be common.  The reasons for this include:

  • chemical reactions take place more slowly as temperature is decreased
  • during prograde metamorphism, fluids such as H2O and CO2 are driven off, and these fluids are necessary to form the hydrous minerals that are stable at the Earth's surface.
  • chemical reactions take place more rapidly in the presence of fluids, but if the fluids are driven off during prograde metamorphism, they will not be available to speed up reactions during retrograde metamorphism.

 


Term
FACTORS CONTROLLING METAMORPH.
Definition
Metamorphism occurs because some minerals are stable only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature.  When pressure and temperature change, chemical reactions occur to cause the minerals in the rock to change to an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and temperature conditions. 
Term

FACTORS THAT CONTROL META.

Temperature 

Definition

  • Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient.  Thus higher temperature can occur by burial of rock.
  • Temperature can also increase due to igneous intrusion.

Term
STRESSES/METAMORPH.
Definition
Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with depth in the Earth.  Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions.  It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic stress, or uniform stress.  If the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress.
Term
foliation
Definition
These sheet silicates will grow with their sheets orientated perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress.  Preferred orientation of sheet silicates causes rocks to be easily broken along approximately parallel sheets.  Such a structure is called a foliation.
Term

Fluid Phase

FACTORS CONTROLLING META.

Definition
Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rocks can potentially contain a fluid.  This fluid is mostly H2O, but contains dissolved mineral matter.  The fluid phase is important because chemical reactions that involve one solid mineral changing into another solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having dissolved ions transported by the fluid.  Within increasing pressure of metamorphism, the pore spaces in which the fluid resides is reduced, and thus the fluid is driven off.  Thus, no fluid will be present when pressure and temperature decrease and, as discussed earlier, retrograde metamorphism will be inhibited.
Term

FACTORS CONTROLLING META.

Time

Definition
The chemical reactions involved in metamorphism, along with recrystallization, and growth of new minerals are extremely slow processes.  Laboratory experiments suggest that the longer the time available for metamorphism, the larger are the sizes of the mineral grains produced.  Thus, coarse grained metamorphic rocks involve long times of metamorphism.  Experiments suggest that the time involved is millions of years.
Term

Responses of Rock to Increasing Metamorphic Grade

slate/ slatey cleavage

Definition
Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and clay minerals.  The preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily break along the planes parallel to the sheet silicates, causing a slatey cleavage.  Note that in the case shown here, the maximum stress is applied at an angle to the original bedding planes, so that the slatey cleavage has developed at an angle to the original bedding.
Term

Responses of Rock to Increasing Metamorphic Grade

Schist/schistosity


Definition
Schist - The size of the mineral grains tends to enlarge with increasing grade of metamorphism.  Eventually the rock develops a near planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation of sheet silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite).  Quartz and Feldspar grains, however show no preferred orientation.  The irregular planar foliation at this stage is called schistosity
Term
GNEISS/ GNEISSIC BANDING
Definition
Gneiss  As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark colored minerals like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow.  These dark colored minerals tend to become segregated in distinct bands through the rock, giving the rock a gneissic banding.  Because the dark colored minerals tend to form elongated crystals,  rather than sheet- like crystals, they still have a preferred orientation with their long directions perpendicular to the maximum differential stress.
Term
Granulite
Definition
 At the highest grades of metamorphism all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicates become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show a preferred orientation.  The resulting rock will have a granulitic texture that is similar to a phaneritic texture in igneous rocks.
Term

Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros

Greenschist

Definition
Olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase in an original basalt change to amphiboles and chlorite (both commonly green) as water in the pore spaces reacts with the original minerals at temperatures and pressures of low grade metamorphism. 
Term

Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros

Amphibolite

Definition
As pressure and temperature increase to intermediate grades of metamorphism, only dark colored amphiboles and plagioclase survive and the resulting rock is called an amphibolite.
Term

Metamorphism of Basalts and Gabbros

Granulite

Definition
At the highest grade of metamorphism the amphiboles are replaced by pyroxenes and garnets, the foliation is lost and a granulite that has a granulitic texture is produced. 
Term

Metamorphism of Limestone and Sandstone

Marble

Definition
Since limestones are made up of essentially one mineral, Calcite, and calcite is stable over a wide range of temperature and pressure, metamorphism of limestone only causes the original calcite crystals to grow larger.  Since no sheet silicates are present the resulting rock, a marble, does not show foliation.
Term

Metamorphism of Limestone and Sandstone

Quartzite

Definition
Metamorphism of sandstone originally containing only quartz, results in recrystallization and growth of the quartz, producing a non foliated rock called a quartzite. 
Term

Types of Metamorphism

  • Cataclastic Metamorphism

Definition
This type of metamorphism is due to mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one another along a fault zone.  Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along the zone, and the rocks tend to crushed and pulverized due to the sliding.  Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the sliding occurred. 
Term

Types of Metamorphism

Burial Metamorphism

Definition
When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures greater than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress.  New minerals grow, but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed.  The main minerals produced are the Zeolites.  Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis, and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase.
Term

Types of Metamorphism

Contact Metamorphism

Definition
Occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures associated with the igneous intrusion.  Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma, metamorphism is restricted to a zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic aureole.  Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are unmetamorphosed.  The grade of metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion.  Because temperature differences between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma are larger at shallow levels in the crust, contact metamorphism is usually referred to as high temperature, low pressure metamorphism.  The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no foliation, called a hornfels.
Term

types of meta.

Regional Metamorphis

Definition
This type of metamorphism occurs over large areas that were subjected to high degrees of deformation under differential stress.  Thus, it usually results in forming metamorphic rocks that are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists, and gniesses.  The differential stress usually results from tectonic forces that produce a compression of the rocks, such as when two continental masses collide with one another. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in the cores of mountain ranges or in eroded mountain ranges.  Compressive stresses result in folding of the rock, as shown here, and results in thickening of the crust which tends to push rocks down to deeper levels where they are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures
Term
Metamorphic Facies
Definition

In general, metamorphic rocks do not undergo significant changes in chemical composition during metamorphism.  The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism.  Thus, the mineral assemblages that are observed must be an indication of the temperature and pressure environment that the rock was subjected to.  This pressure and temperature environment is referred to as metamorphic Facies. (This is similar to the concept of  sedimentary facies, in that a sedimentary facies is also a set of environmental conditions present during deposition).


Term
more metamorphic facies
Definition
The sequence of metamorphic facies observed in any metamorphic terrain, depends on the geothermal gradient that was present during metamorphism.  A high geothermal gradient such as the one labeled "A"  in the figure shown here, might be present around an igneous intrusion, and would result in metamorphic rocks belonging to the hornfels facies.  Under a normal geothermal gradient, such as "B" in the figure, rocks would progress from zeolite facies to greenschist, amphibolite, and eclogite facies as the grade of metamorphism (or depth of burial) increased. 
Term
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
Definition

  • Along zones where subduction is occurring, magmas are generated near the subduction zone and intrude into shallow levels of the crust.  Because high temperature is brought near the surface, the geothermal gradient in these regions becomes high (geothermal gradient "A" in the figure above), and contact metamorphism (hornfels facies) results.
  • Because compression occurs along a subduction margin (the oceanic crust moves toward the volcanic arc) rocks may be pushed down to depths along either a normal or slightly higher than normal geothermal gradient ("B" in the figure above).  Actually the geothermal gradient is likely to be slightly higher than B, because the passage of magma through the crust will tend to heat the crust somewhat.  In these regions we expect to see greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite facies metamorphic rocks.
  • Along a subduction zone, relatively cool oceanic lithosphere is pushed down to great depths.  This results in producing a low geothermal gradient (temperature increases slowly with depth).  This low geothermal gradient ("C") in the diagram above, results in metamorphism into the blueschist and eclogite facies.

Term

Continental Rifting

global tectonics

Definition

A new divergent plate boundary can form when continental lithosphere stretches, and thins to form a rift valley. As the rift widens and thins, upwelling asthenosphere can melt to produce magmas that start to create new oceanic lithosphere and spread the new plates apart (see figure 4.23 in your text)..

An example of an where rifting may be forming a future diverging plate margin is an area of northeastern Africa, called the East African Rift Valley.  Another area where this is apparently occurring is the Basin and Range Province of the Western U.S.

Term

Continental Collisions

global tectonics

Definition

When two plates that have low density continental lithosphere collide with one another subduction ceases because the continental lithosphere has too low of a density to be subducted. As the plates continue to collide fold - thrust mountain belts that develop along the zone of collision.

Currently the highest mountains in the world, the Himalayas represent this kind of event. The Himalayas resulted from a collision of the plate containing India with the plate containing Eurasia. This collision is still taking place and results in joining the two formerly separate plates. The occurrence of ancient fold -thrust mountain belts such as the Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern U.S., the Urals of Central Russia, and the Alps of southern Europe, are evidence of ancient continental collision margins.

Term
mineraloid
Definition
a substance that satisfies some, but not all of the parts of the definition.  For example, opal, does not have a characteristic crystalline structure, so it is considered a mineraloid.
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