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| Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to |
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| In associative learning we learn that certain events occur together two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning in which the organism associates ,,,, and operant conditioning in which the organism associates ,,,,,, |
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| Two stimuli ; a response and a consequence |
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| After pavlov paired a tone or other nuetral stimulus with food in the mouth dogs began salivationg to the neutral stimulus alone salvation in response to a tone must be learned ; the tone is a |
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| Dogs can learn to respond to one kind of stimulus and not to another for example to salivate at the sight of a circle but not a square destinguishing between a CS and an irrelevant stimulus is a |
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| Early Behaviorists believed that for conditioning to occur the unconditioned stimulus must immediately follow the conditioned stimulus .......... demonstrated this was not always so |
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| Farcia And Koellings taste aversion studies |
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| Taste aversion research showed that animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds this finding supports |
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| Darwins principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival |
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| After watson and rayner classically conditioned a small child named alvert to fear a white rate the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit a dog and a sealskin coat little alverts fear of objects resembling the rat illustrates |
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| Generalization of the conditioned response |
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| Salivating in respnse to a tone paired with food is a(n) .......... pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) |
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| respondent behavior ; Operant behavior |
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| Thorndikes law of effect states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur this law became the basis for operant conditioning and the behavioral technology developed by |
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| BF Skinner taught rats to press a bar to obtain a food pellet to guide the rats natural behavior toward the desired behavior he used |
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| A reinforcer is anything presented after a respnse that increases the frequency of that respnse if you clap your hands to stop your dog from barking which you find irritating the stopping of the varking is for you the termination of an aversive stimulus or a |
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| Partial reinforcement is reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs the partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable times is a |
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| A medieval proverb notes that a burnt child dreads the fire in behavioral terms the burning is an example of a |
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| Most researchers now believe that cognitive processes thoughts perceptions and expectations play an important role in learning evidence for the effect of these processes comes from studies in which rats |
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| Rats were carried passively through a maze and given no reward in later trials involving food rewards they immediately did as well as rats that had veen reinforced for running the maze the rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrate |
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| Children learn many social behaviors by imitationg parents and other models this type of learning is called |
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| Parents are powerful models of behavior they are most effective in getting teir children to imitate them if |
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Definition
| Their words and actions are consistent |
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| Bandura believes that the modeling is not automatic whether a child will imitate a model depends in part on the |
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Definition
| Rewards and punishments received by the model |
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| There is considerable controversy about the effects of heavy exposure to television programs showing violence however most experts agree that repeated viewers significantly |
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| Dulls the viewers sensitivity to violence |
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| Human memory involves info processing the psychologival tems for taking in info retaining it and later getting it back out are |
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| Encoding Storage and retieval |
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| Short term memory is an intermediate memory stage where information is held before it is stored or forgotten the newer concept of working memory |
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Definition
| Clarifies the idea of short term memory by focusing on the active processing that occurs in this stage |
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| Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of info a person wants to rememver either in the short or long term rehearsal is part of |
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| When people are tested immediately after viewing a list of words they tend to recall the fist and last items more readily than those in the middle when retested after a delay they are most likely to recall |
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| the first items on the list |
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| Visual Imagery can help us remember material that would otherwise be difficult to master memory aids that use visual imagery peg words or other organizational devices are called |
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| Chunking organizes information into familiar and manageable units a related technique that organizes material into broad categories which are then divided into subcategories is called |
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| hierarchical organization |
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| Sensory info is initially recorded in our sensory memory this memory may be visual............ or auditory .............memory |
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| Unlike our limitless capacity for storing long tem memories our short tem memory for new info is limited our short tem memory capacity is about |
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| Researchers have found that long tem potentiation provides a neural basis for learning and memory ltp refers to |
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Definition
| an increase in a synapse's firing potential after a brief rapid stimulation |
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| A person with amnesia following hipocampus damage will typically be unable to learn new facts or recall recent events however the person may be able to learn new skills such as ride a bike which is an |
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| Research suggests that the hippocampus a neural center in the limbic system of the brain plays an important role in some types of learning the hippocampus seems to function as a |
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Definition
| temp processing site for explicit memories |
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| to measure long term memory psychologists test peoples ability to recall info to recognize what they have learned and to relearn previously learned material. a psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your |
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| To gain access to a memory we activate associations leading to that memory the associations may be specific odors visual images or emotions which are all examples or |
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| In some cases retrieval may be enhanced by being in a context similar to one you have already experienced the resulting feeling that youve been there before is known as |
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| When happy we tend to recall happy times when depressed we more often recall depressing events this tendency to recall experiences consisten with our current emotions is called |
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| In some cases forgetting may be due to an encoding failure that is meaningless info may not be transferred from |
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| the environment into sensory memory |
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| ebbinghaus found that about three days after a session of learnign nonsense syllables he had forgotten much of what he had learned evvinghaus forgetting curve shows that after this initial decline ones memory for novel info tends to |
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| Experiments show that the hour before sleep is a good time to memorize information because this minimizes the disrupting effects of all the other new events that might claim out attention going to sleep after learning new material minimizes |
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| We use the concept bird to think and talk about a variety of creatures all haveing wings and feathers a concept is |
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Definition
| A mental grouping of similar things |
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| Sometimes we solve problems through trial and error trying hundreds or even thousands of solutions before finding one that works at other times we are more methodical or systematic the most systematic procedure for solving a problem is a(n) |
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| A major obstacle to problem solving is the confimation bias the tendency to search for information that confirms out preconceptions that while ignoring info that might probe us wrong another obstacle to problem solving is fixation which is an |
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Definition
| inability to view a a problem from a new perspective |
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Term
| You move into a new neighborhood and notice that your next door neighbor is very neatly dressed wears glasses and is reading a greek play given a choice between her being a librarian and a store clerk you incorrectly guess that she is a librarian you're led astray by |
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Definition
| the reprsentativeness heuristic |
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| After the 9 11 attacjs by foreign born terrorists some observers initially assumed that the 2003 east coast blackout was probably also the work of terrorists this assumption illustrates |
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Definition
| The availability heuristic |
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| The way an issue is posed can affect our decisions and judgments when consumers respond more positively to ground beef described as 75 percent lean than to the same product labeled 25 percent fat they have been influenced by |
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| Children progress from babbling to one word communications and then to sentences of two words the one word stage of speech development is usually reached at about |
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| BF Skinner believed that we learn language the same way we learn other behaviors through association imitation and reinforcement skinners behaviorist view is most helpful in explaining |
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Definition
| Why children learn their household languages |
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| According to noam chomsky we are biologically prepared to acquire language and are born with a readiness to learn the grammatical rules of the language we hear or see he believes all we need to acquire language is |
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Definition
| Exposure to language in early childhood |
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Term
| Benjamin lee whorf proposed that our language determines the way we perceive and think about the world although we now know that language influences rather than determines our thinking whorfs hypothesis does help explain why |
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Definition
| a person who learns a second language thinks differently in that language |
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Term
| Insight is defined as a sudden and often novel realization of a problems solution of the examples discussed in this section the problem solving behavior that most closely resembled insight was |
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Definition
| Sultan the chimpanzees use of a short stick to pull in a long stick |
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| There is much controversy over whether apes can be taught to use language in the way that humans do however most researchers agree that apes can |
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Definition
| communicate through symbols |
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Term
| Intelligence quotient or IQ was originally defined as mental age divided by chronological age and mulitiplied by 100 by this definition a 6 year old with a measured mental age of 6 would have an IQ of 100 likewise the IQ of a 6 year old with a mental age of 9 would be |
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