1. Link to the RBT task list from the Behavior Analyst Certification Board Website

2. Assessment

3. Measurement

4. Skill Acquisition

5. Behavior Reduction

6. Documentation and Reporting

7. Professional Conduct and Scope of Practice

Applied Behavior Analysis 

Possession of a minimum a master's degree that was conferred in behavior analysis or other natural science, education, human services, engineering, medicine or a field related to behavior analysis and approved by the BACB.

1. New BCBA Degree Requirement

2. Any applicaion for BCBA-level certification that is received or incomplete on January 1, 2016 will be suject to the following degree requirement:

3. Possession of a minimum of a master's degree from an accredited univeristy that was (a) conferred in behavior analysis, education, or psychology or (b) conferred in a degree program in which the candidate completed a BACB approved course sequence.

4. BCBAs are responsible for service delivery oversight.

5. BCaBAs assist the BCBA

6. BCBAs or BCaBAs supervise RBTs.

What a RBT needs:

Each RBT must have a BCBA or a BCaBA supervisor who attests to supervise his/her RBT practice and be supervised for a minimum of 5% of the hours spent providing applied behavior analytic service per month. Supervisors must have 2 face to face contacts per month (may be via internet), 1 of the supervisory contacts must be one-to-one, the other may be in a small group

1. Must complete competency after the coursework to get the credential

2. Successfuly complete a criminal background check

3. Pay $50 to BACB

1. Deliver discrete trial instruction

2. Deliver incidental teaching

3. Record data

4. Execute behavior plans as written by BCBA

What a RBT cannot do:

1. Practice independently of a BCBA

2. Represent himself/herself as a Behavior Analyst

1. It is the body of literature that constitutes the science of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). It has its roots in the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and B.F. Skinner's research and philosophical writings. Practitioners of the science analyze their own behavior and the behavior of the teacher according to the scientific principles.

2. Uses an intensive discrete trial training format in a formal setting such as at a table and in naturalistic settings to teach basic skills.

3. Emphasis upon identification of the function of problem behavior, manipulation of antecedents (MOs) and teaching replacement behaviors (mands/requests) to prevent and reduce task avoidance.

1. Heavy emphasis upon requesting reinforcers (manding) from the start of the intensive teaching program. Natural environment teaching and/or making strongest reinforcers available at the table insures request (mand) opportunities.

2. Errorless teaching methods are usually implemented to reduce errors, increase number of responses, which are reinforced, and to reduce task avoidant disruptive behavior. A "prompt delay" prompting/fade method along with the fading of other prompts leads to close to errorless responding. Very few student errors occur and fluent (accurate and quick) responding results.

1. Teachers are trained to respond from moment to moment in a dynamic fashion to the changing behavior of the student based upon the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). "One size fits all" protocols are discarded in favor of extensive training of teachers as scientists.

2. Heavy reliance on the use of the ABA procedures to teach language as found in the research literature published in the journal of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/609/

3. A natural science approach to teaching verbal behavior with emphasis upon the classification of words into functional response classes according to the function of the behavior e.g. mands, tacts, intraverbals, echoics, etc.

1. Heavy emphasis is placed upon rapid presentation of instructional demands and the fluent (accurate and quick) responding of the student. Number of insturctional presentations and student responses per minute are often counted to determine rate of instruction and student fluency of responding. Fluent responding leads to less task avoidance, greater retention, application and endurance of teaching.

2. Less structured teaching with more natural presentation of instructional demands and more reinforcement delivered as a result of an emphasis upon requesting (manding). Less generalization training may be needed.

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, as manifested by the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not exhaustive, see text):

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for example, from abnormal social approach and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation; to reduced sharing of interests, emotions, or affect; to failure to initiate or respond to social interactions.

2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interacton, ranging, for example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of facial expressions and nonverbal communication.

3. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships, ranging, for example, from difficulties adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to difficulties in sharing imaginative play or in making friends; to absence of interest in peers.

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not exhaustive, see text):

1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g. simple motor stereotypies, lining up toys or flipping objects, echolalia, idiosyncratic phrases).

2. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns or verbal nonverbal behavior (e.g., extreme distress at small changes, difficulties with transisitions, rigid thinking patterns, greeting rituals, need to take same route or eat food every day).

3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus (e.g. strong attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, excessively circumscribed or perseverative interest).

4. Hyper- or hypo reactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the environment (e.g., apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or movement).

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities, or may be masked by learned strategies in later life).

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of current functioning.

E. These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) or global developmental delay. Intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder frequently co-occur; to make comorbid diagnoses of autism spectrum disorder and intellectucal disability, social communication should be below that expected for general developmental level.

Note: Individuals with a well-established DSM-IV diagnosis of autistic disorder, Asperger's disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified should be given the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Individuals who have marked deficits in social communication, but whose symptoms do not otherwise meet criteria for autism specrum disorder, should be evaluated for social (pragmatic) communication disorder.

Definition of behavior: Interaction of a person with his environment, any actions of the muscles or glands.

Name a behavior.

Describe what it looks like.

A prerequisite for measuring behavior is to be able to operationally define the target behavior (i.e., the behavior to be changed or the problem behavior) as well as the desired behavior. Being able to operationally define a behavior is important because it helps teachers to:

1. Collect data on the behavior, either by observing the student or by asking others about the student.

2. Collect accurate information about when the behavior occurs.

3. Optimize the available services or supports for data collection.

4. Focus on the interaction between the environment and student instead of assuming that innate issues are the behavior's source (e.g. "He's a troubled kid.").

5. Describe what they want their students to do in an unmistakable manner so that others can assist in their efforts.

6. Design an appropriate intervention.

7. Determine whether the behavior has changed once an intervention has been implemented.

8. Write individualized education program (IEP) behavioral goals and objectives, conduct functional behavior assessments, and communicate with others (e.g., parents, other teachers, guidance counselors)

When defining behavior we should:

1. Use positive terms

2. Use measurable terms

3. Be observable

4. Be clear, concise, and complete

Example 1:

Target behavior - The student does not do his classwork.

Operational definition of the target behavior - The student frequently talks to peers, does unassigned tasks, or calls out for help. If the teacher does not intervene, these behaviors will escalate to yelling, crying, and throwing objects.

Replacement behavior - The student will complete his classwork.

Operational definition of the replacement behavior - The student's eyes are on the assignment, student raises hands for help, writing is task-related, the materials used are task-related, and teacher directions are followed.

Target behavior - The student does not pay attention in class.

Operational definition of the target behavior - The student looks around the room, looks at his desk, or looks at another student.

Replacement behavior - The student will pay attention in class.

Operational definition of the replacement behavior - The student will sit in his seat and makes eye contact with the teacher while verbally responding to the teacher's questions.

Tips for Implementation -

In order to produce an operational definition, it is beneficial for a RBT to: 

1. Describe the behavior in an observable manner

2. Describe the behavior in measurable terms

3. Define the behavior in positive terms

4. Be clear, concise, and complete

If the target behavior is: 

Lisa gets out of her seat too often.

What is the replacement behavior?

If the target behavior is: 

Joey breaks pencils when he gets frustrated.

What is the replacement behavior?

If the target behavior is:

Shawn talks in class without raising his hand.

What would the replacement behavior be?

Target Behavior:

Felicia speaks in class without raising her hand.

What would the replacement behavior be?

Target Behavior:

Felicia cannot decode words on her current grade level.

What would the replacement behavior be?

Target Behavior:

Felicia stares out the window.

What would the replacement behavior be?

1. A problem or target behavior is the behavior the teacher wants to change. It is typically a behavior or skill that occurs either more often than desired or less frequently than desired. In addition to defining a behavior, the RBT might find it beneficial to identify a replacement or desired behavior. The replacement behavior is the behavior the RBT wants the student to engage in.

2. Note: In some cases, it is beneficial for the BCBA in conjunction with the RBT to determine the function of the target behavior before identifying the replacement behavior (e.g., when conducting a functional behavior assessment). For illustrative purposes, we are simply focusing on operationally defining the behaviors without considering the function of the behavior.

Using observable terms when operationally defining a student's behavior means describing the behavior that one sees, not behavior that is presumed to happen. For example, a teacher can observe a student writing answers to comprehension questions. A teacher cannot observe a student's understanding of a text.

What the Research and Resources say:

1. If a behavior is defined in observable terms, the occurence of that behavior is readily apparent to an observer.

2. Observable behavior is what one is doing or the product of what one has done.

1. When defining a behavior, start by describing what the behavior looks like. 

Example: Steve looks out the window when asked to fill out his worksheet.

Non-example: Steve doesn't do his work.

2. Avoid being subjective by describing only the behavior you see or hear.

Example: Rosa rolls her eyes when I ask her to listen while other students talk.

Non-example: Rosa is rude to students who are talking.

1. Does the definition describe the student's actions?

2. Can I see or hear the behavior occurring as described?

1. Sticking to describing behavior in observable terms will help you avoid one of the most common problems when defining behaviors: subjective evaluations that list inferred characteristics (e.g., sad, happy, upset, mad) or covert behaviors (e.g. thinking, remembering)

2. Using observable terms to describe the behavior most likely will be insufficient for creating an operational definition of a behavior. BCBAs and RBTs should also use measurable terms.

Using measurable terms refers to defining behavior in a way that can be counted or timed.

What the Research and Resources Say:

Using measurable terms to define behavior allows one to quantify behavior.

Tips for implementation:

Just as you can measure the dimensions of an object (e.g., height, width, depth, weight), you can measure the dimensions of behavior. To ensure that the behavior is measurable, make sure to include in the operational definition at least one dimension of behavior.

Frequency is the number of times a behavior occurs.

Example: Bob got out of his seat three times.

Number of times the behavior occurs within a given time interval.

Example: Erin tapped her foot an average of 27 times in one minute.

How long a behavior lasts.

Example: Jake stared out the window for four minutes.

Time between the antecedent and beginning of the behavior.

Example: Seven minutes elapsed between the teacher's instruction to begin working and when Joanne actually began working.

Intensity with which the behavior occurs.

Example: The bite left teeth marks but did not break the skin.

Academic skills can be made measurable by referring to a defined standard (e.g., benchmark, grade level).

Example: Angelina will read thirty-five words per minute correctly on the grade-level progress monitoring measure.

1. Can I count the number of times the behavior occurs, the number of minutes the behavior lasts, or the lapsed time between the antecedent and the behavior?

2. Is there a specific standard (e.g., benchmark, grade-level standard) to which the behavior can be compared?

Clear definitions are "readable and unambiguous" 

1. A clear definiton is one that is specific enough that someone not familiar with the classroom or student can utilize the definition and/or the deifnition can be used more than once and the same behaviors would be recorded.

2. Using precise terms when operationally defining behavior refers to describing the student's behavior in a manner that leaves little room for interpretation by others.

3. Being clear involves describing the conditions and context in which the behavior occurs.

1. Avoid vague terms that are open to interpretation (e.g. respect).

Example: When speaking with her teachers, the student will use a quiet voice and will address her teachers using their last names (e.g., Ms. Hall, Mr. Rice).

Non-Example: The student will speak respectfully to her teachers.

2. Reword the definition if you find redundancy. Among groups of professionals, redundant words or phrases may easily find their way into a definition.

Example: Joey makes inappropriate noises during classroom instruction.

Non-example: During class, Joey makes inappropriate noises while the teacher is teaching the class.

Ask yourself the following questions. If you can answer "yes", your definition is clear, concise, and complete.

1. Can a stranger use this definition to determine whether the target behavior is occuring or not occuring?

2. Can you measure the occurence of the behavior using rate, frequency, duration, latency, or magnitude?

1. The conglomerate of real circumstances in which the organism or referenced part of the organism exists; behavior cannot occur in the absence of environment.

2. Entire constellation of internal and external stimuli that can affect a person.

Conduct Preference Assessments 

Reinforcer Assessment: Paired stimulus

What should you do before starting the assement?

1. Stimuli should be selected based upon availability, ease of presentation, parent/staff reports, and any on dietary and health restrictions for the student.

2. Make sure the student has sampled items previously and none are unfamiliar. If a new stimulus is new, allow student access before the assessment begins.

3. Observe the student for 10 minutes allowing free exploration of the classroom and materials and record all of the items the student makes contact with, the duration of contact and type of contact (plays appropriately, taps it, throws, licks, etc.)

4. Before each session, place a cleared off table to use for the assessment. Have materials available to record data from the assessment. Chose 10 items either from your free observation and any other stimuli that is frequently available in the classroom.

1. Put two stimuli on the table in front of the child and wait for 5 seconds.

2. If the child touches a stimuli, remove the non-chosen stimulus immediately.

3. Let the child interact with the stimulus for 5 seconds.

4. If the child approaches both stimuli, block him or her by holding the two stimuli down on the table.

5. If the child does not approach either stimuli after 5 seconds, prompt him or her to sample each stimulus for 5 seconds. For an edible stimulus, put the stimulus in front of the child's mouth. For a toy, let the child hold the stimulus for 5 seconds.

6. After the child samples both stimuli, present the two stimuli gain. (Note that this still constitutes the same trial).

7. Repeat steps 5-7.

8. Record the data for each trial by writing the result on the score sheet provided. Rank preferences in top 3 categories. Pick at least 10 potential reinforcers based on the ranks above 3-4 potential reinforcers/categories.

1. Noisy cars/vehicles

2. Animal sounds

3. Enthusiastic praise

4. High volume praise

5. Songs

6. Listening to a stories

7. Singing

8. Playing with microphone

9. Musical instruments

1. Ballons

2. Lighted toys

3. Liquid timers

4. Marbles

5. Shiny/sparkly toys

6. Slinky

7. Stop watch

8. Trains/vehicles

9. Wind-up toys

10. A happy face on a paper

11. Smiles/gestures

12. Blowing pinwheels

13. Blowing/popping bubbles

1. Dressing up

2. Massages

3. Picture taken

4. Getting a special certificate

5. "Good note" home

6. High fives

7. Line leader

8. Choosing seat

9. Playing with a friend

10. Talking on the phone

11. Being cafeteria helper

12. Displaying work

13. Wearing a badge for a day

14. Go to the office for an errand

1. Dress up materials

2. Watching videos

3. Funny glasses

1. Pop-up

2. Books with sound

3. Puzzle book

4. Picture book

5. Sensory book

6. Coloring book

7. Sticker book

8. Flip book

1. Koosh balls

2. Textured balls

3. Hugs

4. Squeezes

5. Lotion

6. Sand play

7. Play-doh

8. Water play

1. Aerobics

2. Basketball

3. Bike riding

4. Bowling

5. Walking/jogging

6. Indoor walk

7. Playing chase

8. Playing simon says

1. Blocks

2. Chalks/crayons

3. Coloring

4. Cutting with scissors

5. Drawing on chalkboard

6. Finger painting

7. Gluing

8. Writing

1. Dolls/figurines

2. Puppets

3. Stickers

4. Stuffed animals

1. Bouncing

2. Dancing

3. Spinning

4. Outdoor walk

5. Sitting on bouncy balls

6. Using trampoline

1. Scented candles

2. Perfume

3. Various spices

4. Scented potpourri

5. Scratch and sniff stickers and books

1. Crackers

2. Cereal

3. Chips

4. Soda

5. M&Ms

6. Skittles

7. Pretzels

8. Fruit

9. Chocolate chips

10. Sweet tarts

11. Gummy bears

12. Juice

An assessment is a collection of activities that focus on how often a behavior occurs, under what conditions it occurs and why it occurs.

ABC recording provides information about the antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Such information should provide clues about "when" and "why" of the behavior. For example, the ABC sheet below:

Antecedent: Doing writing task

Behavior: Kicks the teacher

Consequence: Put in timeout

Antecedent: Doing sorting task

Behavior: Threw task

Consequence: Put in timeout

Antecedent: Washing dishes

Behavior: Broke dish

Consequence: Put in timeout

In examining the information on the ABC sheet, an important conclusion should be drawn. Specifically problem behavior seems to occur when the person is engaged in some task; moreover, by engaging in the behavior, he/she goes to timeout and may be escaping from that task. If so, a different procedure may be called for that does not involve escaping the task. For example, the person may be asked to restart the task and complete it without problem behavior. In addition, the person may need to learn how to ask for a break from the task to replace the problem behavior.

What is going on in this example?

Antecedent: Teacher is doing paperwork

Behavior: Bites self

Consequence: Put in task

Antecedent: Teacher is on phone

Behavior: Bites self

Consequence: Put in task

Antecedent: Teacher talks with another staff

Behavior: Hits table

Consequence: Put in task

Antecedent: After lunch watching TV

Behavior: Cries

Consequences: Ignored

Antecedent: After dinner listening to the radio

Behavior: Whines/complains

Consequences: Gave aspirin

Antecedent: After snack

Behavior: Moans

Consequences: Counseling session

In the above example, note that there are some unusual behaviors occuring after meals. What might this indicate?

There are a variety of assessments that you may be trained to assist with as a RBT.

We will be reviewing the ABLLS-R (Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills-Reviewed) and the AFLS (Assessment of Functional Living Skills) both by Dr. James Parrington.

We will also review the components of the VB-MAPP (Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program)

1. An assessment, curriculum guide and skills tracking system for children with language delays.

2. Contains a task analysis of the many skills necessary to communicate successfully and learn from everyday experiences.

A. Cooperation and Reinforcer Effectiveness

B. Visual Performance

C. Receptive Language

D. Motor Imitation

E. Vocal Imitation

F. Requests (mands)

G. Labeling (tacts)

H. Intraverbals

I. Spontaneous Vocalizations

J. Syntax and Grammar

K. Play/Leisure Skills

L. Social Interaction Skills

M. Group Instruction

N. Classroom Routines

P. Generalized Responding

Q. Academic Skills

R. Self-help Skills

S. Motor Skills

Over the past four years, parents, relatives and friends of typically developing children have been participating in an ongoing research project by entering data into the WebABLLS (http://webablls.com). The data are collected by parents or professionals who both know the children and have received training in the administration of the ABLLS-R. The data are updated at three-month intervals (i.e. 6 months, 9 months, 12 months) in order to track the specific changes in skills over the course of the children's development. These preliminary data have been collected in a systematic manner to provide information about when each skill measured by the ABLLS-R is usually acquired by typically developing children.

The preliminary data from this research project are from 81 children (42 females & 39 males) ranging in age from 6 months to 60 months. Children are from a variety of geographical locations (both nationally and internationally) and of differing ethnic, socio-economic and educational backgrounds. The average percent of the total possible scores along with the range from the highest to lowest scores for the sample at each 3-month age intervals are presented. The data clearly indicate that typically developing children demonstrate most of the basic language and learning skills measure by the ABLLS-R by the time they are 4 to 5 years of age.

1. Can be conducted by most people with a minimal understanding of applied behavior analysis.

2. Addresses basic language, academic, self-help, classroom and gross and fine motor skill sets.

3. Provides quick review for parents and educators to identify skill level of student.

4. Easy for parents and teachers to communicate about the student's educational programming.

5. Provides data to indicate the skill level of normal development.

1. Skill lists are not exhaustive (544 skills).

2. Skills are mostly in order of childhood development, but every child learns differently.

3. Not a fully standardized assessment.

1. The AFLS Guide- A teaching companion that contains task analyses, teaching suggestions, and prompting strategies.

2. Six individually available assessment protocols including Basic Living Skills, Home Skills and Community Participation Skills, School Skills, Independent Living Skills and Vocational Skills.

3. Same set up as an ABLLS-R.

http://www.partingtonbehavioranalysts.com/page/afls-74.html

Basic self-help, self-care, self-management, hygiene, routines, and core communication skills are assessed in this protocol. The skills assessed in The Basic Living Skills Assessment Protocol should be thought of as a prerequisite for any functional skills program for any learner regardless of age, setting, or disability. These essential skills, if not mastered, will have a profound impact on a learner's ability to live independently, to be successful in school, and to take advantage of various social and recreational activities throughout the learner's life. The Basic Living Skills Protocol includes:

1. Self-Management

2. Basic Communication

3. Dressing

4. Toileting

5. Grooming

6. Bathing

7. Health, Safety & First Aid

8. Nighttime Routines

Whether the learner is living with parents, living in a supported facility, living in a group home or living independently with roommates, the Home Skills Assessment Protocol provides an essential review of skills required for living in a home. Basic and advanced home skills of preparing and eating meals at home, cleaning tasks around the home, clothing, laundry, leisure skills, and the day-to-day mechanics of living in a home are assessed. Home Skills Protocol includes:

1. Meals at Home

2. Dishes

3. Clothing and Laundry

4. Housekeeping and Chores

5. Household Mechanics

6. Leisure

7. Kitchen

8. Cooking

Participating in the community begins with learning to physically navigate safely around all the common aspects of sidewalks, streets, and signs along with people encountered while walking or while being transported. To be able to independently shop in grocery and department stores, shop at the mall, and eat at fast food or sit-down restaurants requires a wide variety of skills. The ability to tell time and use time related concepts, making and keeping appointments, using a phone, and other skills to help learners stay connected and interact with others in the community are also assessed in this protocol. Community Participation Skills Protocol includes:

1. Basic Mobility

2. Community Knowledge

3. Shopping

4. Meals in Public

5. Money

6. Phone

7. Time

8. Social Awareness and Manners

It is important for a learner to be an active participant in a variety of skills, routines and social situations in educational settings. These skills are essential in striving for independence and successful functioning in different types of classroom, in all parts of the school campus, and with peers and various staff. This assessment covers all age levels of education (i.e., elementary school, middle school, high school, college). It also incorporates skills that are necessary in a wide range of classroom environments (i.e., special day classes, "pull out" classrooms, inclusion, regular education), and considers the individual's level of development (e.g. language, behavior, and cognitive abilities). The School Skills Protocol includes:

1. Classroom Mechanics

2. Routines and Expectations

3. Meals at School

4. Social Skills

5. Technology

6. Common Knowledge

7. Core Academics

8. Applied Academics

This Protocol provides caregivers and professionals with information to teach essential skills to learners who are being prepared to live either independently or in a shared residence with others. This criterion-referenced assessment covers a wide variety of skills that promote independent living. There are many skills that are critical in order to live independently including organizing possessions, cleaning and cooking as well as money management skills related to finanical planning, banking, bill paying, using debit and credit cards, and shopping. Each learner needs to know how to travel in the community, must also have good hygiene practices, and take medication as prescribed. This protocol also incorporates skills about the assertion of personal rights, awareness of the motivation of others as well as managing relationships with others in various settings. The Independent Living Skills Protocols includes:

1. Organizational Skills

2. Problem Solving

3. Social Interactions

4. Living with Others

5. Money Management

6. Independent Shopping

7. Self-Care

8. Maintenance and Cleaning

9. Community Travel

10. Self-Care

11. Transportation

12. Kitchen Tools and Appliances

13. Food and Meal Planning

14. Interpersonal Relationships

This protocol provides caregivers and professionals with information to teach essential skills to learners preparing to enter the workforce or those who are already working but want to further develop skills for a wide variety of settings. This criterion-referenced assessment covers skills related to obtaining employment, searching for job openings, creating resumes, completing applications, and preparing for interviews. This protocol also includes a wide range of basic work-related skills such as job safety, payroll, financial skills, and interacting with supervisors and co-workers. It also includes a review of skills required in specific types of jobs in a variety of settings. The assessment evaluates vocational skills for individuals with various types and levels of disabilitiy. The Vocational Skills Protocol includes:

1. Job Search

2. Interview

3. Basic Skills

4. Coworker Relations

5. Workplace Safety

6. Fixed Activity Skills

7. Custodial & Cleaning

8. Laundry

9. Retail

10. Support Personnel

11. Office Skills

12. Computer Skills

13. Restaurant Skills

14. Restaurant Kitchen

15. Warehouse

16. Tools

17. Trades & Construction

18. Landscaping

1. The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) is an assessment, skills-tracking system and curriculum guide to assess the language, learning and social skills of children with autism or other developmental disabilities. A strong focus of the VB-Mapp is language and social interaction, which are the predominant areas of weakness in children with autism.

2. The VB-Mapp was developed by Mark Sundberg, Ph.D., BCBA-D and is a continuation of the author's 30+ year research in lanuage assessment and intervention as it applies to individuals with autism. A contributing author to the VB-MAPP is Barbara Esch, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, BCBA-D, a speech and language pathologist who includes an assessment of speech sounds with a guide for developmental progression called the Early Echoic Skills Assessment (EESA.)

The VB-Mapp set contains an individual scoring protocol and a users guide. The main components of the VB-Mapp are:

Milestones Assessment: Focuses on 170 milestones that serve as the foundation of language, learning and social development.

Barriers Assessment: Focuses on barriers that may impede the acquisition of new skills.

Transition Assessment: Serves as a guide for planning the child's educational needs.

Task Analysis and Skills Tracking: A checklist of skills that support the developmental milestones and can be used for daily curriculum activities and skill tracking.

Users Guide provides the scoring criteria, examples, tips for the tester and an overview of Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior. Included are placement and Individualized Education Program goals to establish intervention and curriculum priorities that are measurable, meaningful and manageable.

The Milestones Assessment is broken down into three levels: 

Level 1 (0-18 Months)

Level 2 (18-30 Months)

Level 3 (30-48 Months)

At Level 1, the child is tested for Mand, Tact, Listener Responding, Visual Perceptual Skills and Matching-to-Sample, Independent Play, Social Behavior and Social Social Play, Motor Imitation, Echoic, Spontaneous Vocal Behavior.

Level 2 adds Listener Responding by Function Feature and Class, Intraverbal, Classroom Routines and Group Skills, Linguistic Structure.

Level 3 adds Reading, Writing, and Math.

A norm-referenced test ranks and sorts students using percentile measures relative to a large sample of peers (e.g. IQ tests, SAT, PPVT, "Bell curve")

1. A criterion-referenced test provides a measure of a student's mastery of a pre-determined group of skills (e.g., math skills)

2. A criterion-referenced test provides specific information as to what a student (or professional) can or cannot do in a certain domain (e.g., manding, national board medical exam, BACB exam)

3. A criterion-referenced assessment provides the operant level (baseline) of a domain of skills for an individual learner, and can directly point to intervention needs and priorities

1. Expands and clearly delineates the traditional categories of expressive (speaker) and receptive (listener) categories.

2. "Expressive language" is expanded across the verbal operants

- echoic (motor imitation, copying, a-text)

- mand

- tact

- intraverbal

- textual

- transcriptive

3. "Receptive language" is expanded to four distinct repertoires

- listener discriminations (receptive language)

- audience participation

- mediator of reinforcement

- emotional responder

1. The VB-MAPP: Milestones Assessment measures 16 domains with 170 language, learning and social milestones, across 3 developmental levels (0-18 months, 18-30 months, 30-48 months)

2. The VB-MAPP: Barriers Assessment examines 24 common learning and language barriers often faced by children with autism

3. The VB-MAPP: Transition Assessment is a summary assessment of 18 domains and can serve as a guide for planning a child's educational needs

4. The VB-MAPP: Supporting Skills and Task Analysis provides a checklist of hundreds of additional skills that may not warrant milestone status, but support the development of each of the domains (e.g., mands for attention, tacts of auditory stimuli)

In addition, this section contains a task analysis of te 170 milestones, which is valuable for those progressing at a slower rate.

5. The VB-MAPP: Placement and IEP Goals provides recommendations for program development based on the child's VB-MAPP profile, and his specific scores on the 170 milestones and the 24 Barriers

Also contains a bank of over 200 IEP objectives directly linked to the milestones and barriers assessments

1. It is important to find out what a child can do (The VB-MAPP Milestones Assessment), but also important to be aware of the problems and challenges he or she faces

2. The VB-MAPP Barriers Assessment is designed to identify and score 24 different learning and language acquisition barriers

3. Many of these barriers are identified in the DSM-5 (inflexible routines, repetitive behaviors, deficits in social communication, sensory defensiveness, fixated interests)

4. Once a specific barrier has been identified, a more detailed descriptive and/or functional analysis of that problem is required

5. An individualized functional or descriptive analysis will be necessary to determine the nature of the problem, and what intervention program might be appropriate for the child

1. There are several different types of barriers that can affect language and learning development

2. Strong and persistent negative behaviors that impede teaching and learning (e.g., non-compliance, tantrums, aggression, SIB)

3. Verbal operants or related skills that are absent, weak, or in some way impaired (e.g., echolalia, rote intraverbals, "mands" that are really tacts)

4. Social behavior and the speaker-listener dyad can also become impaired for a variety of reasons (e.g., limited motivation for social interaction, impaired mands, impaired listener skills)

5. Fundamental barriers to learning that must be analyzed and ameliorated (e.g., the failure to generalize, weak motivators, prompt dependency)

6. Specific behaviors that can compete with teaching (e.g., self-stimulation, hyperactive behavior, or sensory defensiveness)

7. Problems related to physical, medical, or biological barriers that must be accounted for in some way (e.g., articulation or motor imitation errors may be due to phsyical limitations, matching errors may be due to visual limitations, listener errors may be related to hearing problems, poor performance may be due to illness, sleep deprivation, severe allergies, medication changes, pain, etc.)

1. Behavior problems

2. Instructional control (escape/avoidance)

3. Impaired mand

4. Impaired tact

5. Impaired motor imitation

6. Impaired echoic (e.g., echolalia)

7. Impaired matching-to-sample

8. Impaired listener repertoires (e.g., LD, LRFFC)

9. Impaired intraverbal

10. Impaired social skills

11. Prompt dependency, long latencies

12. Scrolling responses

13. Impaired scanning skills

14. Failure to make conditional discriminations (CDs)

15. Failure to generalize

16. Weak or atypical MOs

17. Response requirements weakens the MO

18. Reinforcer dependent

19. Self-stimulation

20. Articulation problems

21. Obsessive-compulsive disorder

22. Hyperactivity

23. Failure to make eye contact

24. Sensory defensiveness

1. Behavior problems

2. Instructional control (escape/avoidance)

3. Impaired mand

4. Impaired tact

5. Impaired motor imitation

6. Impaired echoic (e.g., echolalia)

7. Impaired matching-to-sample

8. Impaired listener repertoires (e.g., LD, LRFFC)

9. Impaired intraverbal

10. Impaired social skills

11. Prompt dependency, long latencies

12. Scrolling responses

13. Impaired scanning skills

14. Failure to make conditional discriminations (CDs)

15. Failure to generalize

16. Weak or atypical MOs

17. Response requirements weakens the MO

18. Reinforcer dependent

19. Self-stimulation

20. Articulation problems

21. Obsessive-compulsive disorder

22. Hyperactivity

23. Failure to make eye contact

24. Sensory defensiveness

1. Gather appropriate materials

2. Have several exemplars of each item to probe

3. Place items on desk in fields designed by the ABLLS

4. Give the SD

5. If needed repeat the SD but do not prompt the answer

5. Based on the student's performance, circle the correct number on the form

1. A Functional Assessment is a set of procedures to identify the cause of a problem behavior or socially inappropriate behavior and reduce it

2. The body of empirical and scientific literature which supports these methods is found in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis

3. Within the Functional Assessment methodology the causes are sought in immediate environment and learning history of the individual

4. The outcome of the assessment is an analysis of the way the person learned the maladaptive behavior and how it is presently supported or maintained in the present learning environment

Functional Assessment does not emphasize a search for a diagnosis or classification of symptoms according to psychodynamic processes as found in the DSM-V. 

Instead the purpose of the assessment is to classify the problem behavior by its function (cause) and then select treatments or interventions which are effective in reducing behavior in that functional category

Consequently, treatments or interventions are classified by functional categories and not by form of the problem behavior

1. Identify the essential components of a written behavior plan

2. Describe common functions of behavior

3. Implement interventions based on modification of antecedents such as motivating/establishing operations and discriminative stimuli

4. Implement differential reinforcement procedures

5. Implement extinction procedures

6. Implement crisis/emergency procedures according to protocol

1. Stated purpose of the BIP

2. Target Behavior(s)

3. Operational definition of behavior(s)

4. Antecedents and setting events

5. Function of behavior(s)

6. Interventions

- setting events and antecedent manipulations

- replacement behaviors

- consequences

7. Data collection methods

8. Procedures to fade the plan

9. Other: specific staff involvement, training for staff, follow-up plans and meetings

- Setting Event and Antecedent Interventions:

Goal: Prevention of Target Behavior(s)

FBA: Use data on target behavior and systematic manipulations, information from interviews and hypothesized function of behavior

Explain methods for:

- changing setting events so that some antecedents do not occur

- using motivative operations/establishing operations to change the effect of the antecedent

 - creating new antecedents or ways in which the antecedent occurs

Goal: Develop skills and increase appropriate behavior

FBA: Use data from systematic manipulations and information from hypothesized functions

1. Provide and describe alternative appropriate behaviors that:

- serve the same function as target behavior (access/avoid)

- are age appropriate and acceptable

- will not interfere with academic environment or other behavior intervention plans

2. Describe methods for:

- teaching new appropriate behaviors

- reinforcement of appropriate behavior

- increasing opportunities for appropriate behavior to occur

3. Changes in setting events and antecedents

4. Manipulation of situations

1. Attention maintained (desire to obtain a tangible object, another person's attention, access to activities)

2. Escape from demand

3. Pain or stress removal

4. Self stimulation

Children with autism often have atypical reinforcers so it is important to remember that any behavior may serve as a reinforcer or punisher to any individual. You must study the four-term contingent (MO/SD/B/C) in order to determine the function.

MO - Motivative Operation (what is the value to that person)

SD - Descriminative Stimulus (what signals that reinforcement is available)

B - Behavior (what does the behavior look like)

C - Consequence (what happens after the behavior to maintain it or reduce it)

The relationship between these variables will often lead you to the answer to "What function does this behavior serve?"

1. Reinforcement increases the likelihood the behavior will occur again in the future

2. Punishment decreases the likelihood the behavior will occur again in the future

If we change how to speak about behavior, we change our own behavior.

For example, if a person is resistant to change, we could say the person:

1. is lazy

2. is not very smart

3. has a difficult home life

4. just doesn't want to do it

1. Lazy

2. Reinforcement available does not match what that person finds reinforcing

3. Not very smart

4. Has not had a sufficient history of pairing change with reinforcement

5. Effort is too high given reinforcement available

6. Does not have the skills to complete the task

7. Just doesn't want to do it

The person:

1. Has not had sufficient history of pairing change with reinforcement

2. Does not have the skills to complete the direction

3. Reinforcement available does not match what that person finds reinforcing

How we talk about problems will help lead us to the correct solution

The consequence that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is called a reinforcer.

Example: Say that a teacher records how often Fred completes his assigned work and discovers that he finishes between 2 and 7 tasks each day. This number of completed tasks is rather low, as other students complete between 15 and 20 per day. Therefore, she talks over the problem with the BCBA and it appears that the teacher does nothing special after Fred completes each task (i.e. she ignores him!). As a result, the BCBA suggests that the teacher praise Fred when he finishes a task. After a week of praise for task completion, the teacher decides to go back to ignoring. After another week she gathers all of the data and reviews it with the BCBA.

From the data collected, when the task completion was ignored, the behavior occured about 5 times per day. When task completion was followed by praise, the behavior increased to around 15 per day. Thus, in this case praise was a positive reinforcer, because when it was presented after a behavior, it increased the frequency of that behavior.

A positive reinforcer by definition, a consequence that

A) the client enjoys

B) makes the client happy

C) increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows

D) causes the client to smile

Say that Billy is learning a dressing task, which involves putting on his underwear, pants, shirt, socks, and finally, shoes. The program specifies that a positive reinforcer should be delivered after he puts on his shoes. But in a particular session, the teachers forgets and delivers it after he turns on the radio, long after he completed the dressing task. What behavior will be strengthened most? Turning on the radio! To strengthen the behaviors involved in dressing, the teacher must deliver the reinforcer immediately after Billy puts on his shoes.

Put on socks--Put on shoes--Turns on radio--Reinforcer

Say that Billy is learning a dressing task, which involves putting on his underwear, pants, shirt, socks, and finally, shoes. The program specifies that a positive reinforcer should be delivered after he puts on his shoes. But in a particular session, the teachers forgets and delivers it after he turns on the radio, long after he completed the dressing task. What behavior will be strengthened most? Turning on the radio! To strengthen the behaviors involved in dressing, the teacher must deliver the reinforcer immediately after Billy puts on his shoes.

Put on socks--Put on shoes--Turns on radio--Reinforcer

Immediately providing praise after the target behavior accomplishes two important tasks. First, it arranges an immediate consequence for the behavior, and constitutes a "bridge" to the "backup positive reinforcer" (e.g. food, access to a toy). Thus even the backup positive reinforcer is delayed, the praise can become a signal that a positive reinforcer is coming and the combination of praise and the backup positive reinforcer can still reinforce the behavior.

Second the praise identifies for the student what behavior earned the reinforcer.

The positive reinforcer should always be paired with praise wherein the behavior that earned the reinforcer is identified. The praise should be given enthusiastically.

This point becomes particularly important with students who frequently emit problem behavior. Consider the following example:

Billy finishes a dressing task by putting on his socks and shoes. Unfortunately he quickly hits the teacher after he is done, but the teacher nonetheless delivers the reinforcer. What behavior will be strengthened the most?

Puts on socks--Puts on shoes--Hits the teacher--REINFORCER

The behavior that immediately precedes the positive reinforcers, which is in this case is hitting the teacher! Imagine the difficulties when the student begins to hit the teacher more and more often. Instead of delivering the reinforcers at this time, the teacher might have required the student to repeat the dressing tasks without hitting the teacher, and then delivered the reinforcer. This scenario examples another important rule:

Positive reinforcers should not be delivered after problem behavior.

Mary works with Linda each day immediately after lunch. Linda is learning to imitate sounds such as "ah", "ga", and "la." After correct imitations, Mary gives Linda a small treat such as a potato chip or piece of candy. Mary's data unfortunately shows that Linda is not making any progress on this new and important skill.

WHAT MIGHT BE WRONG?

Some positive reinforcers are effective only if the student has been deprived of them for a period of time. Thus, edibles may not be positive reinforcers immediately after a large meal. In this example above, Mary might wait a couple of hours after lunch and then use the treats, or use some other consequences (e.g. access to a toy). This is not to say students must always be deprived of a positive reinforcer. Some positive reinforcers are always effective regardless of how much contact a student has had with them. For example, the opportunity to engage in self-stimulatory behavior may always function as a reinforcer for some students, and the teacher need not remove this activity before a teaching session.

Mary works with Linda each day immediately after lunch. Linda is learning to imitate sounds such as "ah", "ga", and "la." After correct imitations, Mary gives Linda a small treat such as a potato chip or piece of candy. Mary's data unfortunately shows that Linda is not making any progress on this new and important skill.

WHAT MIGHT BE WRONG?

Some positive reinforcers are effective only if the student has been deprived of them for a period of time. Thus, edibles may not be positive reinforcers immediately after a large meal. In this example above, Mary might wait a couple of hours after lunch and then use the treats, or use some other consequences (e.g. access to a toy). This is not to say students must always be deprived of a positive reinforcer. Some positive reinforcers are always effective regardless of how much contact a student has had with them. For example, the opportunity to engage in self-stimulatory behavior may always function as a reinforcer for some students, and the teacher need not remove this activity before a teaching session.

Mary works with Linda each day immediately after lunch. Linda is learning to imitate sounds such as "ah", "ga", and "la." After correct imitations, Mary gives Linda a small treat such as a potato chip or piece of candy. Mary's data unfortunately shows that Linda is not making any progress on this new and important skill.

WHAT MIGHT BE WRONG?

Some positive reinforcers are effective only if the student has been deprived of them for a period of time. Thus, edibles may not be positive reinforcers immediately after a large meal. In this example above, Mary might wait a couple of hours after lunch and then use the treats, or use some other consequences (e.g. access to a toy). This is not to say students must always be deprived of a positive reinforcer. Some positive reinforcers are always effective regardless of how much contact a student has had with them. For example, the opportunity to engage in self-stimulatory behavior may always function as a reinforcer for some students, and the teacher need not remove this activity before a teaching session.

If you are highly motivated and each student benefits from your interactions, then your job is to figure out why. Not knowing why things get better or worse is always a problem in a business situation.

Look at this example: a student is having a tantrum (crying, kicking, screaming). One of the classroom assistants who has been assigned to that child for the day is trying to make the child stop these behaviors. She rubs his back, turns on the TV, and delivers him a plate of chips at the same time. He begins to calm. While well meaning, she has no idea which of her behaviors ceased the child's tantrum nor does she have any idea what to do the next time those behaviors occur.

Did he need to be consoled because he just stubbed his finger? Was he hungry? Was he trying to escape a demand? Did he just want her attention?

How would you solve the following problem?

Cara is an 11-year-old girl who had been educated in a discrete trial program for most of her year. For her last two years she has been in a program that has an emphasis on Verbal Behavior. She has learned to vocally mand for all of her reinforcers but her articulation is often poor. Cara's parents, advocate, and school district determined that she is eligible for an assistive technology evaluation. The classroom staff feel that teaching Cara how to use a computer may prepare her for a more sophisticated voice output device without decreasing her motivation to vocally mand. They have tried to interest Cara to use the computer by using several commerically available computer software games. She shows no interest. She is unable to activate a mouse or type on the keyboard. Cara's reinforcers consist of edibles, stringing buttons, patterning, coloring, cutting, and Barney. The staff intend on discovering ways to use her current reinforcers to motivate her to want to use the computer, reduce problem behavior (moving her chair away from the computer) when motivated to use the computer, and to teach Cara to activate the program on her own.

Solve the Problem

1. Identify behaviors that are in need of change (target behaviors)

2. What MO do you need to manipulate in order for Cara to one day be a successful computer user?

3. How do you turn the computer into something she wants vs. something she is disinterested in? How do you set the scene to contrive a MO.

Without the appropriate use of scientific knowledge and the precise delivery of a treatment, you will not be able to replicate the intended effect.

The point is, it's not enough to know that something works. It is vitally important to know why it works.

Without the appropriate use of scientific knowledge and the precise delivery of a treatment, you will not be able to replicate the intended effect.

The point is, it's not enough to know that something works. It is vitally important to know why it works.

1. Engages in the behavior to get attention.

2. Engages in the behavior to escape work or learning situations.

3. Engages in the behavior as a form of "self stimulation".

4. Engages in the behavior because he/she is in pain.

5. Engages in the behavior to get access to items such as preferred toys, food, or beverages.

6. Engages in the behavior because he/she likes to be reprimanded.

7. Engages in the behavior when asked to do something (get dressed, brush teeth, work, etc.)

8. Engages in the behavior even if he/she thinks no one is in the room.

9. Engages in the behavior more frequently when he/she is ill.

10. Engages in the behavior when you take something away from him/her.

11. Engages in the behavior to draw attention to him/herself.

12. Engages in the behavior when he/she doesn't want to do something.

13. Engages in the behavior because there is nothing else to do.

14. Engages in the behavior when there is something bothering him/her physically.

15. Engages in the behavior when you have something he/she wants.

16. Engages in the behavior to get a reaction from you.

17. Engages in the behavior to try to get people to leave him/her alone.

18. Engages in the behavior in a highly repetitive manner, ignoring his/her surroundings.

19. Engages in the behavior because he/she is physically uncomfortable.

20. Engages in the behavior when a peer has something he/she wants.

21. Does he/she seem to be saying, "come see me" or "look at me" when engaging in this behavior?

22. Does he/she seem to be saying "leave me alone" or "stop asking me to do this" when engaging in the behavior?

23. Does he/she seem to enjoy the behavior, even if no one is around?

24. Does the behavior seem to indicate to you that he/she is not feeling well?

25. Does he/she seem to be saying, "give me that (toy item, food item)" when engaging in the behavior?

1. Would the behavior occur continuously, over and over, if this person were left alone for long periods of time? (For example, several hours)

2. Does the behavior occur following a request to perform a difficult task?

3. Does the behavior seem to occur in response to you talking to other persons in the room?

4. Does the behavior ever occur to get a toy, food, or activity that this person has been told he or she can't have?

5. Would the behavior occur repeatedly, in the same way, for very long periods of time, if no one were around? (For example, rocking back and forth for over an hour.)

6. Does the behavior occur when any request is made of this person?

7. Does the behavior occur whenever you stop attending to this person?

8. Does the behavior occur when you take away a favorite toy, food, or activity?

9. Does it appear to you that this person enjoys performing the behavior? (It feels, tastes, looks, smells, and/or sounds pleasing.)

10. Does this person seem to do the behavior to upset or annoy you when you are trying to get him or her to do what you ask?

11. Does this person seem to do the behavior to upset or annoy you when you are trying to get him or her to do what you ask?

12. Does the behavior stop occuring shortly after you give this person the toy, food, or activity he or she has requested?

13. When the behavior is occuring, does this person seem calm and unaware of anything else going on around him or her?

14. Does the behavior stop occuring shortly after (one to five minutes) you stop working or making demands of this person?

15. Does this person seem to do the behavior to get you to spend some time with him or her?

16. Does the behavior seem to occur when this person has been told that he or she can't do something he or she had wanted to do?

1. The behavior usually occurs in your presence or in the presence of others

2. The behavior usually occurs soon after you or others interact with him/her some way, such as delivering an instruction or reprimand, walking away from (ignoring) him/her, taking away a "preferred" item, requiring him/her to change activites, talking to someone else in his/her presence, etc.

3. The behavior often is accompanied by other "emotional" responses, such as yelling or crying.

1. The behavior often occurs when he/she has not received much attention.

2. When the behavior occurs, you or others usually respond by interacting with he/she in some way (e.g. comforting statements, verbal correction or reprimand, response blocking, redirection)

3. (S)he often engages in other annoying behaviors that produce attention

4. (S)he frequently approaches you or others and/or initiates social interaction

5. The behavior rarely occurs when you give him/her lots of attention

6. The behavior often occurs when you take a particular item away from him/her or when you terminate a preferred leisure activity

7. The behavior often occurs when you inform the person that s(he) cannot have a certain item or cannot engage in a particular activity.

8. When the behavior occurs, you often respond by giving him/her a specific item, such as a favorite toy, food, or some other item.

9. (S)he often engages in other annoying behaviors that produce access to preferred items or activities.

10. The behavior rarely occurs during training activities or when you place other types of demands on him/her.

11. The behavior often occurs during training activities or when asked to complete tasks.

12. (S)he often is noncompliant during training activities or when asked to complete tasks.

13. The behavior often occurs when the when the immediate environment is very noisy or crowded.

14. When the behavior occurs, you often respond by giving him/her brief "break" from an ongoing task.

15. The behavior rarely occurs when you place few demands on him/her or when you leave him/her alone.

1. The behavior occurs frequently when (s)he is alone or unoccupied.

2. The behavior occurs at relatively high rates regardless of what is going on in his/her immediate surrounding environment.

3. S(he) seems to have few known reinforcers or rarely engages in appropriate object manipulation or "play" behavior.

4. (S)he is generally unresponsive to social stimulation.

5. S(he) often engages in repetitive, stereotyped behaviors such as body rocking, hand or finger waving, object twirling, mouthing, etc.

 6. When s(he) engages in the behavior, you and others usually respond by doing nothing (i.e... you never or rarely attend to the behavior.)

7. The behavior seems to occur in cycles. During a "high" cycle, the behavior occurs frequently and is extremely difficult to interrupt. During a "low" cycle the behavior rarely occurs.

8. The behavior seems to occur more often when the person is ill.

9. S(he) has a history of recurrent illness (e.g., ear or sinus infection, allergies, dermatitis).

Without motivation, most behavior will not occur. All operant behavior involves motivation. There are multiple examples of motivational effects in everyday life:

1. One does not reach for doorknobs unless there is a reason to open the door.

2. People will not reach in their wallets until they need money, a credit card, identification or some other items within the wallet.

3. Rats do not move much in a maze if they are well-fed.

On the other hand, events can occur which make behavior more likely:

1. People run to doors when someone shouts "fire".

2. Needing to make a purchase will lead people to reach in their wallets.

3. A rat that has not been fed will be very likely to explore a maze.

Value Altering Effects:

Establishes the value of stimuli: events or items that will serve as a reinforcer

Frequency Altering Effects:

Evokes any behavior that in the past have resulted in obtaining the events or items

Value Altering Effects:

Abolishes the value of stimuli: events or items that will not serve as a reinforcers

Frequency Altering Effects:

Abates any behavior that in the past have resulted in obtaining the event or items

Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence

This is known as the 3 term contingency. We now know it is more effective to study behavior in terms of the four term contingency by considering Motivative Operations (MOs)

"The interrelationships among them (antecedents, behaviors, and consequences) are the contingencies of reinforcement" (Skinner, 1969)

What can change the value (importance) of these stimuli:

1. Vending machine

2. Door

3. Lamp

4. Telephone

5. A teacher

1. Someone saying "Do this"

2. Someone walking in a room

3. Someone looking at him

4. Someone turning on the light

5. Someone opening the door

6. Holding up an index card with the word "CAT" on it

7. Offering an item by holding out your hand

1. A fundamental characteristic of human behavior is that it is lawful and has an impact upon its environment (deterministic), as well as the environment having an impact on behavior also

2. Behavior is defined as any action of the muscles or glands (i.e. walking, jumping, hitting, spitting, talking)

3. Behavior should be described or defined in terms of what it looks like (topography) not what a person's motivation might be

A typical child is shown "Push the button Bobby" on a musical toy by his mother. Bobby pushes the button. The music plays. Bobby finds the toy the next day and pushes the button whenever he is motivated to hear the music.

A child with autism is shown "Push the button Jack" on a musical toy by his mother. Jack did not understand the command and bangs the toy. Jack is told "Not like that, push it like this (and is shown to push the button). Jack cannot imitate and bangs the toy again in hopes that the music will play, he begins to scream and cry when it doesn't. Mom takes the toy away and puts it in a toy box somewhere because "Jack doesn't like that toy." When the music toy emerges from the toy box, Jack just passes it by.

1. Use a variety of toys

2. Mix of preferred and non-preferred toys

3. Modeling sign keeps effort low (when using sign language for manding)

4. Toys are easily accessible

5. Move quickly

6. Know when to end non-preferred activities.

1. Area is organized and reinforcers are readily available

2. Potential reinforcers have been identified

3. Potential reinforcers have been listed on a skill tracking sheet

4. Strong reinforcers have been identified

5. RBT confirms MO for stimulus 1

6. RBT presents stimulus 1 non-contingently

7. RBT does not interrupt reinforcing activities

8. RBT delivers stimulus 2 to the student

9. If the student will not accept stimulus 2, the RBT identifies another way to pair item

10. If the student protests, stimulus 2 is removed

11. RBT has selected reinforcers to pair that have good manding potential

12. If the student initiates play or tries to access stimulus 2 it is delivered non-contingently

13. Manding begins in the natural environment for stimulus 2

14. Easy demands are slowly faded in between mands

15. Teaching opportunities to have the student give up highly preferred reinforcers for less preferred reinforcers are identified

16. Voice modulation and body language of the RBT are shaped by the student's behavior and reaction to the RBT.

1. People will complete tasks to stop the unpleasantness of the demand rather than gain access to positive attention or teacher delivered reinforcement

2. Strong reinforcers are not identified and it limits the ability to make teaching situations fun and interesting for the students

3. Manding opportunities remain low

4. The use of functional verbal behavior remains low

5. Reduces the number of teaching trials a student is able to participate in

To signal that reinforcement is available

1. Student/parent interview

2. Observation

3. Trial and error

1. Edibles

2. Toys that typical children would play with

3. Anything safe that they seem to enjoy

1. A behavioral procedure used to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior and to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors. The desirable behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. This results in an increase in the future probability of the desirable behavior. At the same time, any problematic behaviors that may interfere with the desirable behavior are not reinforced.

2. Combining reinforcement of desirable behavior and extinction of problematic behavior

1. Define the desirable behavior - clearly identify and define the desirable behavior that you want to increase with the DRA

2. Define the problematic behaviors - clearly identify and define the problematic behavior(s) you want to decrease with DRA

3. Identify the reinforcers - determine specific reinforcement by observing the person, use reinforcers you know are effective from previous assessments, ask the person questions, using the Premack principle (using the opportunity to engage in a high-frequency or preferred behavior as a reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior), do preference assessments for new potential reinforcers

1. Reinforce the desirable behavior immediately and consistently: reinforce a behavior immediately after it occurs if you want to increase it. Do not delay. Reinforce the desirable behavior each time it occurs on a continuous schedule of reinforcement.

2. Eliminate reinforcement for problematic behaviors: if it cannot be eliminated completely at the very least minimize it. Make sure that the schedule of reinforcement for the desired behavior is greater.

3. Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the target behavior: Once the desirable behavior occurs consistently and the problematic behavior occurs rarely begin to thin the schedule of reinforcement. Intermittent reinforcement maintains the desirable behavior over time by making it more resistant to extinction

4. Program for generalization: the target behavior should occur outside of the training situation in all relevant stimulus situations

1. Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior - this should be done through functional assessment, must eliminate the reinforcer maintaining the problem behavior in order for the DRO to be effective

2. Identify the reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure - determine specific reinforcement by observing the person, use reinforcers you know are effective from previous assessments, ask the person questions, using the Premack principle (using the opportunity to engage in a high-frequency or preferred behavior as a reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior), do preference assessments for new potential reinforcers

1. Choose the initial DRO time interval - DRO involves delivering the reinforcer after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur. If the problem behavior occurs frequently, interval should be short; if the problem behavior occurs less frequently, the interval will be longer. Choose an interval length that will result in a high probability of reinforcement. The interval should be set below the mean time as baseline data reveal

2. Eliminate the reinforcers for the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior - the interval must be timed, deliver reinforcement only if problem behavior has not occurred for the entire interval

3. Reset the interval if problem behavior occurs - if problem behavior occurs before the interval ends, the interval is reset and it begins again without reinforcement delivery

4. Gradually increase the interval length - once problem behavior has decreased and reinforcement is delivered at almost every interval, the interval length is slowly increased so the decrease in problem behavior can be maintained.

1. Strengthen an existing skill or behavior

2. Teach a new skill or behavior

1. It is easily delivered

2. It is given immediately

3. It is natural

In extinction, a consequence that normally follows a behavior is no longer given and as a result the frequency of the behavior decreases.

Extinction is a way to decrease future occurences of behavior.

When using extinction procedures, the person may emit new or novel behaviors that may be problematic.

Behavior can also be maintained by negative reinforcement. For example, aggression may occur because it results in escape from a task or tantrums may occur because they produce escape from loud noise and confusion in the classroom. How can such behavior be extinguished? Or in other words, how can negative reinforcement be withheld? All that needs to be done is prevent escape from the negative reinforcer. For example, let's say that Jane tantrums during tasks because such behavior results in her being sent to timeout and she therefore does not have to do the task. Thus, the reinforcer in this case is escape from the task and it is a negative reinforcer because something is being taken away or eliminated (i.e. the task). To extinguish the tantrums, one must withhold the consequences that normally occurs after tantrums, which in this case is escape from the task.

What should be done instead?

- Instead of sending Jane to timeout, the teacher would merely keep her in task and require that she complete it before she is permitted to escape.

It is important to realize a given extinction procedure will depend on what reinforcer maintans the behavior. If attention maintains behavior, then social ignoring would be the appropriate extinction procedure; if food maintains whining, then one merely needs to withhold food after whining; if the termination of a conversation maintains aggression, then conversation must continue (and not be terminated) during and immediately after aggression; and if getting out of task maintains crying, then the student must be kept in task during and immediately after crying.

In all cases, a consequence that maintained a behavior was withheld. But different consequences maintain different behaviors, and the procedures that will extinguish these behaviors will therefore differ.

Have you ever had the experience of moving the furniture in your house, or changing the position of your desk and find that for a period of time your actions or behavior has changed? Sometimes we will arrange our home office; for no apparent reason. For a period of time after we do this; we feel different in the office. We seem to have more motivation, more interest in working? Why is this?

Sometimes our behavior, including emotions, becomes tied to environment we are in, including the arrangement of that environment. This is also true with people who engage in challenging behaviors. The behaviors they may engage in may be more likely to occur in the "comfort of familiar surroundings." Sometimes, the likelihood of these problem behaviors can be reduced, by changing or rearranging the environment.

1. Identify the essential components of a written skill acquisition plan

2. Prepare for the session as required by the skill acquisition plan

3. Use contingencies of reinforcement (e.g., conditioned/unconditioned reinforcement, continuous/intermittent schedules)

4. Implement discrete trial teaching procedures

5. Implement naturalistic teaching procedures (e.g. incidental teaching)

6. Implement task analyzed chaining procedures

7. Implement discrimination training

8. Implement stimulus control transfer procedures

9. Implement stimulus fading procedures

10. Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures

11. Implement generalization and maintenance procedures

12. Assist with the training of stakeholders (e.g. family, caregivers, other professionals)

Most usually there are six main categories of concern in which skills need to be acquired. These include:

1. Daily Living Skills

2. Personal Management Skills

3. Social Skills

4. Communication Skills

5. Pre-vocational/vocational skills

6. Recreational/lesiure skills

Another kind of baseline if often used to further probe the student's abilities. In it, the student is given the SD; if he does not perform the first step, the student is prompted to do so, and then given the chance to perform the 2nd step. If this step is not performed, then prompts are again provided to complete this step, and the student is given a chance to perform the 3rd step, etc.

In summary, if a student is unable to perform a step or skill, he/she is prompted through it and given the chance to perform another step or skill.

1. Domain

2. Program Name

3. Criteria

4. Target Behavior

5. Goal Setting (where the goal will be targeted)

6. Goal Focus (acquisition/maintenance)

7. Program Description should include:

- Preparation

- Materials

- Prerequisite behavior

- SD: Discriminative Stimulus

1. Preparation: what you need to do to set up prior to instruction

2: Materials: items you need for preparation

3: Prerequisite behavior: behavior needed prior to instruction of the target skill

1. There are a number of things that teachers should consider when developing an instructional program to teach a new skill. First, they must decide what to teach by evaluating the student and setting an instructional objective. Second, teachers need to identify the instructional or natural cues that signal the children to perform the skill. Third, behavior change procedures must be selected, when can include reinforcement procedures, prompting, and compensatory strategies. Finally, a data collection system must be created to indicate the student's progress in learning the skill.

2. These components make up the basis for an instructional program that can be used by a teacher or a paraprofessional with a student with ASD. The figure outlines the Instruction Model.

Reinforcement Schedule: A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement should be used based on previous reinforcement assessments.

Data Collection: A "yes" is recorded on the first probe trial of each target daily. A "no" is recorded for an incorrect or no response on the first probe trial of each target daily.

Number of trials: At least 5 teaching trials daily.

Criteria: 3 consecutive "yes" probes

Set 1: One part

Set 2: Two parts

Set 3: Three parts

Set 4: Four parts

Generalization Procedure: Use multiple exemplars of both objects and pictures of mastered targets

Generalization Criteria: 90% for 1 session

Domain: Labeling

Task Name: Labels emotions of others

Target Behavior: The student will be able to label ongoing facial and behavioral examples of emotions and pictures of faces depicting various emotions

SD: "How does he feel?"

Example: When observing another child who is crying because his balloon popped and the student is asked how the child feels, the student will say "sad."

Goal Setting: At school

Goal Focus: Acquisition

Reinforcement Schedule: A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement should be used based on previous reinforcement assessments.

Data Collection: A "yes" is recorded on the first probe trial of each target daily. A "no" is recorded for an incorrect or no response on the first probe trial of each target daily.

Number of trials: At least 5 teaching trials daily

Criteria: 3 consecutive "yes" probes

Sets:

1. Student will label 1 emotions (actual example or picture)

2. Student will label at least 2 emotions (actual examples or pictures)

3. Student will label at least 3 emotions (actual examples or pictures)

4. Student will label at least 4 emotions (actual examples or pictures)

Generalization Procedure: In the natural environment the student will label the correct emotion when asked "How does he/she feel?"

Generalization Criteria: 1 time for each emotion mastered

A schedule of reinforcement is a protocol or set of rules that a teacher will follow when delivering reinforcers (e.g. tokens when using a token economy). The "rules" might state that reinforcement is given after every correct response to a question; or for every 2 correct responses; or for every 100 correct responses; or when a certain amount of time has elapsed.

Broadly speaking there are two categories of reinforcement schedule, the first being a "continuous" schedule and the other being an "intermittent" schedule.

Within an educational setting, a CRF would mean that the teacher would deliver reinforcement after every correct response from their student/s. For example, if you were teaching a student to read the letters A, B, C, and D, then every time you presented one of these letters to your student and they correctly read the letter then you would deliver reinforcement.

There are four basic types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement and these are:

1. Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule.

2. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule.

3. Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule.

4. Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule.

A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement means that reinforcement should be delivered after a constant or "fixed" number of correct responses. For example, a fixed ratio schedule of 2 means reinforcement is delivered after every 2 correct responses. The chosen number could be 5, 10, 20 or it could be 100 or more; there is no limit but the number is defined.

When using a variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement the delivery of reinforcement will "vary" but must average out at a specific number. Just like a fixed-ratio schedule, a variable-ratio schedule can be any number but must be defined.

For example, a teacher following a "VR2" schedule of reinforcement might give reinforcement after 1 correct response, then after 3 more correct responses, then 2 more, then 1 more and finally after 3 more correct responses.

Overall there were a total of 10 correct responses (1 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3 = 10), reinforcement was delivered 5 times and so reinforcement was delivered for every 2 correct responses on average (10/2 = 5). As can be seen in the image below, reinforcement did not follow a constant or fixed number of correct responses and instead "varied" and hence the name "variable-ratio" schedule of reinforcement.

A fixed-interval schedule means that reinforcement becomes available after a specific period of time. The schedule is abbreviated into "FI" followed by the amount of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes available, e.g. an FI2 would mean reinforcement becomes available after 2 minutes has passed; an FI20 means 20 minutes must pass and so on.

A common misunderstanding is that reinforcement is automatically delivered at the end of this interval but this is not the case. Reinforcement only becomes available to be delivered and would only be given if the target behavior is emitted at some stage after the time interval has ended.

To better explain this say a target behavior is for a child to sit upright at his desk and an FI2 schedule of reinforcement is chosen. If the child sits upright during the 2 minute fixed-interval no reinforcement would be given because reinforcement for the target behavior is not available during the fixed-interval.

If the child is slumped in his seat after the 2 minute interval elapses reinforcement would still not be given because reinforcement is only now available to be given. Just because he emitted the target behavior (sitting upright) during the interval does not mean reinforcement is delivered at the end of the interval.

Say 10 more minutes pass before the boy sits upright, it is only now that he has emitted the target behavior and the interval is over that reinforcement would be delivered. Once reinforcement is delivered then the 2 minute fixed-interval would be started again. After the 2 minute fixed-interval has elapsed, it could have taken 2 seconds, 10 minutes, 20 minutes or more until the boy sat upright, but no matter how long it would have taken, no reinforcement would be delivered until he did.

The variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement means the time periods that must pass before reinforcement becomes available will "vary" but must average out a specific time interval. Again the time interval can be any number but must be defined.

Following a "VI3" schedule of reinforcement, a teacher could make reinforcement available after 2 minutes, then 5 minutes, then 3 minutes, then 4 minutes and finally 1 minute. In this example, reinforcement becomes available 5 times over a total interval period of 15 minutes. On average then, three minutes had to pass before reinforcement became available (2 + 5 + 3 + 4 + 1 = 15/5 = 3) and so this was a VI3 schedule.

Just like a fixed-interval schedule (FI) schedule, reinforcement is only available to be delivered after the time interval has ended. Reinforcement is not delivered straight after the interval ends, the child must emit the target behavior after the time interval has ended for the reinforcement to be delivered.

A = antecedent

B = behavior

C = consequence

Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) is a method of teaching in simplified and structured steps. Instead of teaching an entire skill at once, the skill is broken down and "built-up" using discrete trials that teach each step one at a time.

It might be helpful to initially think of DTT as a series of "teaching attempts" with each "attempt" called a "discrete trial" or sometimes just a "trial".

As an example, say we're teaching a child, Jane, to learn to identify the colors red and blue by asking her to point to red or blue cards placed on her desk. Each teaching attempt or "discrete trial" might be scripted (structured) like this:

Discrete Trial One

1. Teacher places one red and one blue card on the table in front of Jane

2. The teacher than says "point to red"

3. Jane responds by pointing to the red card

4. The teacher would say "That's right! Great job!"

5. There would be a very short pause before a new discrete trial would begin

Discrete Trial Two

1. Teacher places one red and one blue card on the table in front of Jane

2. The teacher than says "point to blue"

3. Jane responds by pointing to the blue card

4. The teacher would say "You're right! Excellent!"

5. There would be a very short pause before a new discrete trial would begin

1. Antecedent

2. Prompt

3. Response

4. Consequence for a correct response

5. Consequence for an incorrect response

6. Inter-trial response

Prompts

a) are antecedent events

b) are parts of consequences

c) precede a response

d) both a & c

Prompts should be

a) gradually withdrawn

b) withdrawn immediately

c) never withdrawn

d) none of the above

You can fade verbal prompts by:

a) reducing the loudness of the word

b) reducing the number of words

c) using phonemic cues

d) all of the above

Discrete trials are regarded as an effective teaching method for children with autism because, according to Smith (2001), children with autism often lack a desire to learn like their typical peers. That is, children with autism often have difficulty learning through observing others or exploring their environments; as well as difficulty engaging with, playing with or talking to others.

There are a number of reasons why DTT can increase motivation and learning for a child with autism (Smith, 2001). Firstly, each trial is short therefore many teaching trials can be completed allowing for numerous learning opportunities. Secondly, the DTT method of one-to-one teaching allows for the program to be completely individualized for the needs of each child. Thirdly the "procedural" format of a discrete trial creates clarity for the child.

There is a clear beginning and end to each trial with prompts and antecedents kept simple and at an appropriate level. By breaking down tasks into short manageable trials and using suitable prompts and guidance 'DTT maximizes children's success and minimizes their failures'.

1. When beginning discrete trial teaching, initially pair the sessions with high levels of reinforcement. Objectives presented in a mixed and varied format often reduce a student's inclination to escape work tasks and make pairing easier.

2. In a mixed and varied format operants and teaching tasks are intermixed. For example the teacher may ask a child to "clap hands" then label "dog" and then imitate jumping rather than doing 10 massed trials of clap hands or 10 trials of clap hands plus other one step command targets

3. There are variations of how to present discrete trials the following slides discuss procedures when DTT is presented in a mixed and varied fashion

1. Data is most often collected for the first probe trial of each target. When data is collected this way rather than trial by trial, it often allows teachers to work at a faster pace which holds the student's attention longer and reinforcement can be delivered more efficiently.

2. Students must respond within 1-2 seconds of the antecedent which improves fluent responding

3. When teaching to both fluency as well as accuracy, students generalize skills more effectively and efficiently

4. When new skills are presented they are interspersed with easy, known tasks. Usually 80% of skills presented will be known and 20% unknown or targets

5. By presenting trials with the 80-20 ratio, a natural maintenance of skills occurs as well as continued reinforcement of previously mastered skills which leads to better retention over time

6. When new skills are introduced they are presented in an errorless manner (most to least prompting), hence an appropriate prompt will be given to ensure the student's success.

7. When students respond successfully they come in contact with more reinforcement and are more willing to continue to respond to access reinforcement. Prompts are faded as needed.

8. Reinforcement is delivered following task completion at a variable rate. The balance of the student's effort to perform the task and the value of the reinforcement should continually be assessed

1. Pair the teaching environment with reinforcement

2. Mix and Vary instructional demands

3. Reduce learner error using errorless teaching procedures (i.e. teach, transfer, test)

4. Intersperse easy and difficult demands

5. Fade in effort and difficulty of responses

6. Extinction for problem or off task behavior

7. Immediately deliver reinforcement

8. Fade in the number of demands

9. Use a fast pace of instruction (short inter-trial intervals)

10. Teach skills to be accurate and and fast (fluent)

1. SD

2. Immediate prompt

3. Transfer Stimulus Control (re-present SD without prompt or with faded prompt)

4. Present Easy (known) task

5. Present Easy (known) task

6. Probe

1. SD

2. Wait 3 seconds

3. Prompt

4. Transfer Stimulus Control (re-present SD without a prompt or with a faded prompt)

5. Present Easy (known) Task

6. Present Easy (known) Task

7. Probe

You will want to:

1. ensure you use a variety of reinforcement

2. ensure the effort required to obtain reinforcement is reasonable

3. use an appropriate rate of reinforcement

4. use an appropriate magnitude of reinforcement

5. ensure the immediate delivery of reinforcement (the time between response and reinforcement is short)

Careful organization of your materials is the key to a successful DTT session

Recommendations:

1. Put each instruction/SD on an index card

2. It is helpful to put each operant on a different color card to help ensure you are mixing and varying operants (mixing and varying refers to operants not just SDs)

3. Separate targets from mastered skills using a specialized color of index cards

4. Put your materials in different bags for target skills that are well labeled. Maintenance items may be grouped together

1. Maintenance probes are especially important when a student gains a large repertoire of skills

2. Separate the tacts, picture discrimination, RFFCs and mixed VB that do not need materials into smaller bags

3. Depending on the number of mastered items, separate those goals into sets. For example if you have 100 tacts/picture discriminations and 200 mixed VB cards and 10 RFFCs you may want to have 5 sets (set 1 would have 20 tacts, 40 mixed VB cards and 2 RFFCs)

4. Set a schedule. You would run these for the entire day along with any of the targets in any of the operants

5. Probe at least once per month. If a student misses 2 consecutive probes, move it back into acquisition