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Definition
Pienemann developed the Processability Theory which states that beginning language learners have a limited capacity for syntactic information. Ties into his Teachability Hypothesis and developmental readiness.
(Ortega, 2009, p. 132) |
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Term
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Definition
Developed the Teachability Hypothesis which states that-
a) stages of development cannot be skipped through instruction.
b) instruction will be best if it focuses on the next developmental stage.
(Mitchell and Myles, 2001, p. 116) |
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Term
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Definition
The concept of interlanguage which is the language system that each learner constructs at any given point in development. It is natural language characterized by systematicity and variability.
(Ortega, 2009, p. 110 & p. 141) |
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Term
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Definition
| Fossilization is the phenomenon of non-progression of learning despite 1. continuous exposure, 2. adequate motivation, and 3. opportunity to practice. Can be global (affecting all of the IL) or local (affecting part of the IL). |
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Term
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Definition
| Curtiss was Genie's case worker when she was residing at Children's Hospital. Genie never fully attained native-like proficiency and is a strong case in favor of the CPH, but there are many other external factors affecting the validity of Genie's case. |
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Term
| Hyltenstam and Abramsson (2001) |
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Definition
| Studies have yet to identify a single adult L2 learner who is indistinguishable from a native speaker in all aspects of language. |
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Definition
| The study of a L1 English speaker who was an exceptional L2 learner of Arabic. "Julie" was indistinguishable from a native speaker in all but a few aspects of Arabic. This is a strong case against CPH. |
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Term
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| Conducted a statistical meta-study of 45 case that looked at explicit and implicit FonF and FonFS instruction between 1980 and 1998. They found that instructed groups out performed non-instructed groups and that explicit FonF was the most effective. |
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Definition
| Noticed that many learners errors were interference from the L1 and claimed that the structures that were most different would be most difficult to learn. The beginnings of Contrastive Analysis. |
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| The school of Contrastive Analysis believed that through L1-L2 comparison, one could predict learner errors because the L1 was the source of errors. The greater the difference in features of the L1 and features of the L2, the more more errors produced. |
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Definition
| Study with L1 French, L2 English learners and pronoun placement. Found that L1 did not accurately account for L2 errors (cast against Contrastive Analysis). |
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Term
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| Age of Acquisition (AoA) is the age at which learners are immersed in an L2 context. AoA is the strongest predictor for ultimate attainment. |
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Term
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Definition
| There is a a limited developmental period during which it is possible to learn language (L1 or L2) to native-like levels. Known as the Critical Period Hypothesis. After the CP that ability declines. |
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| Proposed that there is an age at which the acquisition of L1 at native-like levels becomes impossible, Critical Period Hypothesis. Children are predisposed to learn language. |
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Term
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Definition
| The information-processing theory and the idea of automatization. Learners move from controlled-processing the the short-term memory to automatic-processing in the long-term memory. This movement is called restructuring. |
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Definition
Observation of French immersion classes in Canada. They noted the type of feedback and they types of learner uptake. The types of feedback observed were 1) explicit correction, 2) recasts, 3) clarafication requests, 4) metalinguistic feedback, 5) Elicitation, and 6) Repetition.
They found that while recasts were the most common type of feedback used by teachers, it led to the least uptake. The most effective form of feedback for learner uptake was elicitation. Forms of feedback that did not give the learner the correct form were more effective for uptake in general. |
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Term
| Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam (2006) |
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Definition
| 34 low-intermediate students observed in a private language school in New Zealand. Target form was past tense "-ed." Students were given grammaticality judgement tests and immitation tests. They engaged in picture sequencing activities. They were given pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests on the target form. They found that explicit feedback with metalinguistic information was more effective than implicit feedback (as demonstrated on delayed post-tests. Explicit feedback contributes a learners developing language system. |
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Term
| Pica, Young, and Doughty (1987) |
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Definition
| Dyads of NSs and NNSs giving and following instructions respectively. Looked to analyze the differences between pre-modified input and interactionally modified input. They found that the quantity, redundancy, and complexity or utterances was greater in interactionally modified input. Supports Long's Interaction Hypothesis. |
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| 34 ESL learners in Austrialia. Sought to examine learner production of higher level question formation through interaction. Learners were grouped into 5 groups, two of which involved interaction. She found that more level 4 and 5 question types were produced by the groups that required/involved interaction. Supports Long's Interaction Hypothesis. |
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Term
| Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) |
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Definition
Defined "tasks" as activities used in language teaching that are designed to promote the sharing of ideas and opinions, collaboration toward a single goal, or competition to achieve individual goals. Tasks encourage interaction.
Jigsaw
Information Gap
Problem Solving
Decision Making
Opinion Exchange |
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Term
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Definition
ESL students at American University, target form was relative clause production to see if learners noticed and acquired more through output activities. Subjects performed text reconstructions and comprehension activities. There were two output groups, two no output groups and a control group. One of each of the groups got enhanced input as well. He found that output participants noticed the form in both input and output. He also found that output had a positive effect on learning while enhanced input did not. Supports Swain's Output Hypothesis.
SLA - Spring 2010 W07S19-22 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Their hypothesis was that output gives rise to noticing. They studies 8th grade French immersion students in Canada using a think aloud protocol (later known as LREs). They found that as the learners produced the L2, they indeed noticed the gaps. They also found that the output and noticing triggered cognitive processes for metalinguistic knowledge.
(study discussed in Swain, 1995) |
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Term
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Definition
3 Functions of Output
1. Noticing/Triggering Function: Output leads to more awareness of what needs to be learned.
2. Hypothesis Testing Function: Output leads to an opportunity to experiment with new or partially learned structures.
3. Metalinguistic Reflection Function: Output is a tool for reflection which leads to greater awareness and control.
SLA - Spring 2010 W07S13-15 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Defined Language Related Episode (LRE) as a learner initiated discussion of language form in which learners talk about the language they are producing, question their language use, and correct themselves or others.
SLA - Spring 2010 W07S16 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Output Hypothesis - Swain said that interaction and negotiating for meaning should push the delivery of a message (pushed output) that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately. It is parallel to i + 1 and should be known has comprehensible output.
SLA - Spring 2010 W07S11 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Defined intake as the portion of input that learners actually internalize.
SLA - Spring 2010 W06S14 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Stated the Markedness Differential Hypothesis, which is that marked forms tend to be more difficult to learn and cause more interlanguage solutions (Ortega, 2009, p. 38)
SLA - Spring 2010 W03S20 - Sauro |
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Term
Gass & Selinker (2001)
[Transfer] |
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Definition
Define transfer as the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation.
Positive transfer is facilitation.
Negative transfer is interference.
SLA - Spring 2010 W03S13 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Mother tongue: language spoken by the primary caregiver.
Primary Language: language a speaker feels most comfortable in in most contexts.
L1: The first language a child learns to speak and understand.
Home language: language used at home for everyday interaction.
Family language: lingua franca among family members.
SLA - Spring 2010 W03S10 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
First to focus attention on the importance of learner errors. Response the Contrastive Analysis because a majority of learner error could not be explained by L1 interference
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 38-9) |
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Term
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Definition
Studied L1 morpheme acquisition in English speaking children and found a consistent order of acquisition. This sparked research into the L2 order of acquisition of certain features.
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 39) |
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Term
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Definition
After studying Spanish L1 and Mandarin Chinese L1, English L2 morpheme acquisition for several years, concluded that it is highly probable that children of different language backgrounds and host background acquire morphemes in a similar order.
(Mitchell and Myles, 2004, p. 40) |
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Term
Gass & Selinker (2001)
[Error Analysis] |
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Definition
Define error analysis as a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make.
Steps to EA- Collect data, identify errors, classify errors, quantify errors, analyze error source, conduct pedagogical remediation.
SLA - Spring 2010 W03S24-25 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Krashen posited the Input Hypothesis which stated that learners will acquire language when the input contains language structures that are slightly beyond their current level.
i + 1 (i = current level, +1 is structures slightly out of the learner's reach)
SLA - Spring 2010 W06S15 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Extended Krashen's Input Hypothesis because input alone is not sufficient. The Interaction Hypothesis states that interactionally modified input and conversational adjustments lead to acquisition as learners negotiate for meaning. Conversation is fine-tuned to comprehensible input through:
1. Repetitions
2. Confirmation checks
3. Comprehension checks
4. Clarification Requests
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 167) |
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Term
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Definition
Said that a crucial site for language development is the interaction between learners and other speakers because -
1. negotiation of meaning
2. interactionally modified imput
3. opportunity for output
4. elicitation of negative feedback to draw attention to mismatches. |
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Term
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Definition
A reformulation of the Interaction Hypothesis to emphasize negative feedback and selected attention as the way to acquisition during negotiation of meaning.
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 174) |
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Term
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Definition
The Noticing Hypothesis defined noticing as the process of bringing something into focal attention consciously or unconsciously. Noticing and attention are necessary and sufficient for turning input in to intake.
(Mitchell and Myles, 2004, p. 184-185)
(Ortega, 2009, p. 63) |
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Term
| Aljaafreh & Lantolf (1994) |
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Definition
Designed the regulatory scale from explicit (other-regulated) to implicit (self-regulated) levels of collaboration between the tutor and learner in the learner's Zone of Proximal Development.
See Nassaji & Swain (2000), p. 39 OR See Mitchell & Myles (2004), p. 211 for the full scale |
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Term
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Definition
| Study with 2 Korean, L2 English learners and article usage to see if corrective feedback in the ZPD was more effective than random corrective feedback. They found this to be true and consistent with Vygotskian perspective that knowledge is constructed through collaboration and interaction within the ZPD. |
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Term
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Definition
| Analyzed audio and video data from L1-L2 Japanese casual interactions. Found that the L2 speakers oriented themselves as "novices" and the L1 speakers as "experts". In these differential roles conversational repair occurred when a) the L2 speaker invited repair and b) understanding would be jeopardized without repair. |
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Term
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Definition
Long's seminal work that distinguished between FonFS and FonF. FonFS is the syntactic approach centered and organized individual elements of language. FonF is overtly drawing learner's attention to linguistic elements through lessons that are focused on meaning and communication.
(in Doughty & Williams, 1998, p. 3) |
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Term
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Definition
| Analyzed the effect of recasts and their impact on question formation for ESL learners. They use the pre- and post- test method. The experiemental group got "intensive" recasts whenever they made an error. They found that the advanced learners who received the recast treatment progressed at least one stage. Researchers determined that recasts were effective if the learner was developmentally ready (Ortega, 2009, p. 182). |
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Term
| Doughty & Williams (1998) |
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Definition
| Deals with the pedagogical choices a teacher has when dealing with FonF. First they discuss whether FonF is actually needed (if features are part of UG), but determine that FonF is needed to push learners to more accurate native-like proficiency. Then they discuss the difference between proactive (planned form flooding) and reactive (just in time learning) FonF and determined that the teacher must take into consideration the learner's developmental readiness when targeting forms (the next issue discussed) giving feedback. |
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Definition
| Reviewed 12 studies comparing learners who received instruction and those who did not (naturalistic). He found that instruction made a difference. Instruction is 1) beneficial for child and adult learners and 2) beneficial for learners at all proficiency levels. |
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Term
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Definition
The effects of L1 transfer will only affect the rate of development.
(Ortega, 2009, p. 35) |
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Term
| Lightbrown & Spada (1999) |
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Definition
Study with 144 French L1, English L1, 11-13 y.o learners. analyzing question formation stages. They found that L1 transfer can create a sub-stage (sub-aux inversion with pronouns, but not nouns) in the developmental sequence, which affects their rate of development.
(Ortega, 2009, p. 35-36) |
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Term
| Vygotsky (1978, translated) |
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Definition
Defines the Zone of Proximal Development as the difference between the developmental level of the individual and the higher potential level of development under the guidance of a tutor or peer collaboration.
(Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 196) |
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Term
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Definition
| The socio-cultural belief that language is a "tool for thought" or a means of mediation in mental activity. Through language we direct attention to features in the environment. Learning is socially mediated. |
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Term
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Definition
| Discusses neurobiology and language learning. Broca's area is responsible for speech and people with Broca's Aphasia speak agrammaticially and in a halted manner. Wernicke's area is responsible for lexical terms and patients with Wernicke's Aphasia speak fluently and grammatically, but use nonsensical words. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and PET scans help determine where brain activity is occurring. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is used to when brain activity is taking placed. The brain become less plastic when development is complete (CP?). Although the L2 is not processed using the same brain structures and mechanisms, they are not used as efficiently as with the L1. |
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Term
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Definition
| List possible sources of L2 knowledge (UG, L1, Fomulas, automatization, implicit learning). Also discuss cognitive individual differences (aptitude, age, and working memory). |
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