-rational choice

-benefits outweigh cost

-pursue self-interest

Deterrence Theory

Rational Choice Theory

Routine Activities Theory

rational choice

swift/severe/certain

Beccaria and Bentham

specific and general deterrence

offence specific vs offender specific crime

roots in social inequality created by capatalist and manly society. struggle of power and resources creates crime

Marxist Crim

Classical Crim

Modern Conflict

Radical Crim

Feminism

Left Realism

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

class is power relationship

focuses on economy/capatalist system

brutality of capatalist system turns workers into animals

wrote Das Kapital and Communist Manifesto

social relations are determined by economic productive relationships

capatalism encourages exploitation of workers

Marx believed surplus value in business belongs to workers

each society produces own types of crime, ways to deal with crime and gets the crime it deserves. 

law

Instrumental Marxism:

Structural Marxism:

Spitzer's Marxian Theory of Deviance: 

does not locate causes of individual criminality

lack of individual responsibility

idealistic

Society is composed of have and have-nots rulers and ruled

Laws reflect the interests of the dominant class

capitalism encourages egoism and criminality by equating status with property

only crimes of poor are punished

economic inequality intensifies personal problems and crime

crime will virtually disappear with equal distribution of property

1960's

influenced by self-report studies of delinquency

labelling theories

social and political upheavals of the 60's and 70's

Chambliss and Seidman "Law Order and Power" 1971

The justice system operates to protect the rich and powerful by how crimes are defined, enforced, and how law breakers are punished

crime is politically defined

definitions are based on interests of the powerful

conflict exists between social groups

the laws are enforced by the powerful

behaviour is structured by class

stereotypes of crime are diffused by the media

crime becomes a social reality

austin Turk- "criminality and legal order", authority relationships produce conflict because groups have their own norms and behaviours, this results in norm resistance. Open conflict will occur if both groups are strongly committed, have group support and are not sophisticated. 

Research - comparison of fluctuations in rates or poverty and crime, examination of cases in the CJS for bias by class and race.

Criticisms- lack of empirical evidence, crime in socialist countries

Britain 60's and 70's

Taylor, Walton, Young, The New Criminology

Brought about by critique of conventional approaches to crime. 

United States, Uof C scholars influenced by rights movement

80's and 90's, left realism, feminism, and peacemakeing criminologies. 

John Lea and Jock Young

we need to be realistic about both the crimes of the rich and crimes of the poor

Marxist theorists are too idealistic

Basic Principles: working class crime is serious, for victims and perpetrators. 

Relative Deprivation=discontent + no solution = crime

Need to use qualitative and quantitative studies

Need both short term and long term solutions - pre-emptive deterrence(working in neighbourhood) , demarginalization by involving youth in community and neighbourhood development ot challenge deviants

most study of crime is done by men thus reflect's men's understanding

feminist researchers are interested in gender differences in crime and women as victims of crime

women experience double marginality at work and at home

commit fewer crime and different types of crime.

powerlessness increases likelihood of victimization for women

crime is a way of "doing gender" for men

-asserting masculinity

-separates them from the weak

main explanatory concept is patriarchy

inequality has roots in sexual violence

-women can be controlled and forcibly impregnated

-men socialized to be sexually aggressive

-sexual aggression is supported by peer groups

Main focus is on violence against women and the effects of sexual abuse on women's criminality

Studies show that crime is majority intra class not inter class

ignores low crime levels in capatalist societies like Japan and Switzerland 

blames the poor

lower class neighbourhoods cause crime

Structural Crim

Social Disorganization Theory

Social Strain Theory

Cultural Deviance Theories 

criticisms: 

links levels of criminality to different neighbourhoods. 

Concentric Zones

Social Ecology

Park and Burgess, Shaw and McKay

Social Disorganization flourishes in communities that are experiencing rapid migration, rapid industrialization, substantial turnover, "renters"

Closer to centre of city, more crime

Transitional Neighbourhoods have more crime: high population turnover, substandard housing, poor working conditions, limited parental supervision, intergenerational culture conflict, high immigration, lack of assimilation

Kids in play groups in transitional neighbourhoods: get into trouble with authorities, form adolescent gangs, have deviant role models, recruit new immigrants

Criticisms: mainly applicable to US cities only, ignores geographical features of city

Crime rates reflect community deterioration (disorder, poverty, alienation, disassociation, fear of crime), "Broken Window Theory" (abandoned, run-down buildings attract crime and violence," cross cultural research supports this

1) Lack of employment oppurtunities (undermines family strength)

2) Community Fear (residents retreat from street=more strangers)

3) Siege Mentality (outside world is enemy, mistrust authorities)

4) Population Turnover (lack of stability, reduces communication and information flow)

5) Community Change (more rentals and singles, devaluation of property, declining economic status)

6) Poverty Concentration (most disadvantaged concentrated in one area)

7) Weak Social Controls (lack of organizations to maintain control, unsupervised peer groups)

8) Decline in social altruism (no residents to teach one another about moral obligations, donations and volunteerism decreases)

Criticisms: most people that live in slums do not become criminals or deviants

social structures in society encourage people to commit crime. conflict and disparity among classes. 

Emile Durkheim

Robert Merton

humans are egoistic (need social control to regulate wants and behaviours), shared norms and values

famous work about suicide rates

functionalism

effect of social structure on behaviour

law regulates interactions in society, when regulation inadequate, social problems occur

Applies to US

explains only among lower class

not all poor people turn to crime

characterizes all of society - the north american dream. only money counts, success at all costs, job is more than family. 

economic values dominant

other institutions have no power

Judith and Peter Blau

sense of justice based on comparison

rich and poor live in close proximity

causes discontent

rich retreat to gated communities

criticisms: some people feel discontent but fail to join the movement. 

micro theory explains individual experience of strain

crime is result of negative emotions caused by: failure to achieve goals, achievements not meeting expectations, loss of positive things, negative stimuli.

Crime results from continuous strain and few resources coping with strain.

Explains peaking of crime in adolescence. Women have lower crime rates, may be socialized to control, internalize stress. 

theory where conformity to lower class cultural norms will result in crime because lower class cultural norms are often in conflict with conventional social norms

Status Frustration and Delinquent Subcultures

Differential Opportunity

Cloward and Ohlin

Illegitimate opportunities are not equally available to all.

Stable Criminal Subcultre = established criminal activities

conflict subculture = violent youth gangs, status in gang

Retreatist subculture = drugs, alcohol, skid row (double failures)

Criminality is a product of socialization

Must examine agents of socialization: family, school, religion, friends, institutional involvement and belief

3 kinds

Social Learning Theories

Social Control Theories

Labelling Theories

Differential Association

Neutralization Theory

Sutherland. Crime is function of learning. Introduced concept of white collar crime. Challenged stereotype of crime as a lower class phenomenon.

Criminal activities and skills and motives learned through interaction from significant others and peers.

Significant others will give favourable or unfavourable encouragement to do crime. Priority, frequency, duration, intensity important to determine how deviant

Research shows that deviant friends are particularily important in illegal drug behaviours

Recently cultivated friendships create greater deviant behaviours. 

Sykes and Matza 

Delinquency and Drift. People drift towards deviant behaviours. 

Techniques of neutralization justify the deviance and paves way for further deviance

Subterranean values exist side by side with conventional values in the larger culture. (Good and bad values exist)

Techniques of Neutralization

1) Denial of responsibility

2) Denial of injury

3) Denial of victim

4) Condemnation of the condemners

5) Appeal to higher loyalties

Commitments, values, norms, beliefs discourage people to commit crime. Empirical research supports basic claims of social bond as protection against delinquency, especially family ties although some attachments encourage deviance.

Containment Theory

Bonding Theory

Walter Reckless

answers question of how to avoid deviance

Everyone has the potential to commit deviant behaviour but internal pushes, external pressures and external pulls 

deviance is not a behaviour but how we respond to behaviour

social groups creat deviance by making rules

moral entrepreneurs work to have their ideas about deviance enshrined in law

law is differentially enforced based on social status and social distance

identifies the role of social control agents

focuses on social interactions 

distinguishes between deviant acts and deviant careers

4 components

1) stigma

2) master status

3) degradation ceremony

4) primary and secondary deviance 

Criticisms:

does not explain origins of criminal behaviour

limited range of behaviours

applied though degradation ceremonies (court ceremonies)

results in exclusion and reduced opportunity

Lemert.

Impulsive behaviour

everybody does deviant things from time to time

only a few are caught

those not caught go on to conventional lifestyles

describes subsequent behaviour of those who are caught

becomes a permanent feature of lifestyle

involves small number of people

Labelling is societal reaction which converts primary deviance into secondary deviance

victimless crimes or mala prohibitum (crimes that are wrong because that's the law)

2 views to legislating morality

consensus view - murder is wrong

conflict view - marijuana can be wrong

undertake "moral crusades to have their values incorporated into society.

demonize offender

encourage moral panics

Paraphilias

abnormal sexual practices focused on, non-human objects, humiliation, torture, persons unable to consent, masochism (one's own pain for sexual pleasure)

may be criminal or non-criminal

Sexual appeal to an inanimate object

2 types

form fetish - object and shape that are important (heels)

media fetish - material which object is made (silk)

Freud was first to describe concept

term arose from object having supernatural powers

Freud said result of childhood trauma

intense sexual arousal fantasies over 6 months

often cause significant distress

ephebophilia - sexual feelings for 15- 19 year olds
frotteurism - rubbing up against someone
exhibitionism  - exposing yourself in public
Voyeurism - peeping tom

biastophilia - rape

lust murder  - sexual satisfaction by killing someone

necrophilia - sex with dead person

zoosadism - sexual pleasure from cruelty to animals

zoophilia - sexually attracted to animals

sexually significant activity

economic transaction

emotional indifference

illegal

communication for purposes of prostitution

bawdy houses

transportation and procuring (obtaining prost. for someone else)

living off the avails

child prostitution

women were viewed as property of men

rape was offence against father or husband

rape diminished value of wife or daugther

long been associated with warfare

1983 was mad "illegal" to rape your wife

sexual assault common part of domestic violence

guilty of indictable offence not exceeding 10 years

or 

summary offence not exceeding 18 months

sexual interference - no one can touch someone under 16 sexually

invitation to sexual touching - no having a 16 year old touch someone else

sexual exploitation - position of trust can not abuse unless over 18

no sexual explointation for challenged person

anal intercourse is illegal if under 18 and not married

if under 16, illegal to expose genitals

No means no legislation 1992

Rape shielf laws - protects victim from questions regarding sexual history. limited access to counselling records

corroboration (outside 3rd party evidence) no longer mandatory

Types of Rapists ( Groth )

Power Reassurance - low self esteem, doesn't want to hurt victim, loner, non-violent, fantasy, most common

Power Assertive - athletic, dominating, extreme sense of superiority and entitlement, doesn't care about victim

Anger Retaliatory - out to hurt someone, blames problems in his life on women, wants to punish and degrade women

Anger Excitation - wants to rape, torture and kill, lots of planning, often has family, 30 - 35

Opportunistic - waits for opportunities 

Situational - does not prefer children but offends under certain circumstances (regressed, naive,)

Preferential - true sexual interest in children (mysoped - strangers or fixated - never grown up)

Evolutionary/Biological

Male socialization

mental illness

social learning and pornography

sexual motivation

Life History

Criminal History

Actuarial Scales

Review of Reports

Psychometric Testing

Interview with relevant informants

Plethysmorgraph 

Treatment is very helpful

War, capital punishment, self-defence, euthanasia, abortion

First Degree

Second Degree

Manslaughter

Infanticide

frustration: frustration increases violence

personal traits: brain injuries, mental illness, psychotic

family dysfunction: fam violence, abuse, inconsistent discipline

Drugs: increased aggression, trafficking creates disputes, addiction can lead to potential homicide

Demographics: rapid change causes chaos. Economic shift can create unemployment and unequality

Culture: culture of violence found in specific areas.

Social Disorganization: crappy neighbourhoods more violence, less community inclusion, gangs

Drugs:

Gangs: violence demonstrates membership

Firearms: easy for suicide, murder, accident

Economic: 

Aging population

Policing

Punishment/Incarceration

Civilizing Process: molded by social attitudes. People become polite, shameful of actions

Bureaucratization: adding more controls and checks so people are unable to commit crime

Elite Convergence: reduction of dispersion of levels of income across society

Homicide Clearance

High rates of inequality

weak welfare (lack of healthcare)

history of slavery

history of violence

legacy of guns

high level of drug consumption

capital punishment

high number of gang membership

high involvement in military conflicts

high incarceration rates

bc has lowest clearance rate. 

more unsolved murders than the past.

gang homicides/group homicides hard to clear

new technologies help crack old cases. 

work load of police

legal changes

• Visionary- These killers suffer from mental illness, think that someone is telling them to kill someone for some odd reason, they suffer from hearing voices that help guide them to kill people. Example Ed Gain.
• Mission-orientated- targets a certain group or type of people. Example The Unabomber
• Hedonistic- They get a thrill out of killing, they do it searching for fun! Example, hill side stranglers
• Power/control orientated- Asserts control, have the largest number of victims as the whole. They control the life and death of the individual.
• Comfort Killers- Material gains from the homicide. Examples; murder for hire people. Example; the Ice man, loved killing people, killed people for sport type of belief.
• Discipline- Following someone else, helping someone else in the homicide itself. Example the wife helping and sometimes participating in the homicide with the husband.

• Family annihilation- one family member killing the rest of the family. Family comprises both the victims and perpetrators, can be murder-suicide
• Pseudo-commando- Example Columbine or snipers. Fascinated with firearms, really big into planning, huge plan of how it will go down.
• Disgruntled employee- “going postal” Where you feel wronged at the workplace and coming back to open fire on workplace/employees and employers.
• Discipline- Charlie Manson, and the Manson girls. Charismatic leader, and have followers who do the killing.
• Set-and-run- the killer is absent from the scene when the killing happens. Like bombs or poison.

• Localized- Street level gangs, formed and focused on one general area. Often formed as an informal youth gang and developed. Example; FOB, Ogden Boys etc.
• Regional- Across different regions of Canada, most are ethnic based, such as indian posse or red alert.
• National- Gangs that have ties right across Canada, such as the Hells Angels.
• Transnational- These are the large very developed and organized gangs, they are worldwide. MS-13, Triades and Hells Angels are a few.

• Prison- gangs that are established in prison, usually by ethnic or racial backgrounds. Keep each other safe in prison and make ties outside of prison. 
• Youth- Small street level gangs that aren’t very developed that are full of youth. 
• Outlaw Motor cycle- Organizations like the Hell’s Angels that ride around on motorcycles having a good time. Typically older, more established lots of money and looking for a good time and brawls.
• Ethnic- Different racial orientated gangs, have the latino gangs, indian gangs, ect.

Calgary has a gang suppression unit that monitors gang members in bars, restaurants and night clubs who escort these members off of the premise. Don’t allow the gang members in them to avoid conflict and keep them from having a good time and spending the money they are making. Approaches the theory of deterrence to keep 

this is to help bring awareness to youth that the gang life isn’t a good life to live. It isn’t all glamor and the gang disruption program highlights the negatives surrounding the gang life. Focuses on developing youth’s community life skills.

gangs who have been around for twenty or more years, and keep generating themselves. They have a wide age range typically 9 to 10 years, number 100 or more members, are very territorial and have several internal cliques based on age or area. Have family values and very close.

They are typically large gangs, with a wide range of age disparity. Use the Internet, planes as well as other technologies to transport drugs and money. Engaged in capitalism, as they want to make as much money as possible.

usually formed out of localized gangs and grew internationally. They start small and are very active in recruiting and making money; soon they continue growing and spread their roots nation wide then ultimately run the drug trade in one nation and start trading globally.

Drugs- one of the many root causes in gang life, distribution of drugs can create money for the members as well allow the members to have a good time while racking in the cash!

Firearms- Firearms are a means of protection for the gang members, can use them to protect one another, drugs or money. 

Economics- The economics of the gang life is to make money and live the high life! 

gangs like MS-13 start off in a gang, they are extremely pissed off at the government and the system, find other people who are pissed off and join an alliance and once out of jail or even from in jail control other like minded people and get back at the system. Start dealing drugs to make money and cause violence to get back at the system.

when a youth comes from a poverty ridden home, they are more likely to join the gang life to make money and pursue the American dream by selling drugs and other illegitimate activities.

Under sec 467.1 of the Canadian criminal code an organized crime group is a group of three or more people working together and committing illegal activities. 

Very hard to create transnational investigations because different countries have different laws.

Interpol- every country has their own section of Interpol, that they enter their problems and crime. When a country needs information about a person in another country, their Interpol sends a request to the head quarters in France and they communicate the messages between federal agencies around the world.

Europol- European law enforcement agency which goal is to make Europe and the European union a safer place by assisting members of the European Union in serious international crime and terrorism. 

Frontex- big policing section in France that monitors the boarders on the European Union, they offer training to the law enforcement agencies in European union’s boarder patrols.

Narcotics, Human and Weapons Trafficking- these are the three more predominant crimes done by transnational crime groups. 

Evolution of Organized Crime-  For example Mafia, they started off small scale just as a family matter, then grow to be a large globally recognized crime group. 

• Nationalistic Terrorist groups- These terrorists primarily seek changes in territories or boundaries related to desired independence and/or new political identities.  Seeks to promote the interests of the minority groups. Example, IRA in Northern Ireland, EOKA in Cyprus and ETA group in the Basque area of Spain.
• Revolutionary terrorist groups- primarily wishes to alter fundamental political and social relationships and governance within an existing state.  Ultimate goal is the replace the state. Invoke fear into those in power. These groups wish to overthrow the existing government and replace it with a structure sympathetic to the oppressed masses. Example, red brigade in Italy, or Tupamaros of Uruguay.
• Political Terrorist groups- generally seek to defend existing power relationships and inequalities or return to previous status quo, they have political terrorism directed at people or groups considered to be the outsiders. This category includes groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the United states, neo-Nazi groups in Germany or loyalist groups in Northern Ireland.
• Religious Terrorists groups- (From book) Extreme religious beliefs have strongly shaped the context of terrorism in recent years. In groups like the PLO and the Irish Republican Army, religious affiliation is evident but it is the groups’ political and ethno-nationalist goals that are prominent. 
• Non Political Terrorism- groups with particular social or religious causes. Such as anti-abortion groups or animal rights groups.
• State Sponsored Terrorism- Repressive regimes, death squads, uses police to kill those deemed as a threat. Structural terrorism in the form of genocide. Example, Nazis.

Terrorism looks at attacking a certain population according to their social and political goals. Organized crime groups look at making money globally but will fight to do so, organized crime uses means like; trafficking humans, weapons or drugs to make money. Terrorists look to get their message across and make a difference. Terrorism- ideologies, criminals- money.

The response of 9/11 and the invasion of Afghanistan. Poverty is a large issue in the terrorist regions. 

counter-terrorism action group (CTAG) promotes counterterrorism by prioritizing needs and targeting assistance to expand counterterrorism capacity in recipient counties. Also encourages all countries to meet their obligations under Resolution 1373 of the United Nations Security Council and the thirteen international counterterrorism conventions and protocols.

When someone living in poverty is offered money to join and partake in particular terrorist activities they are more likely to do so in order to feed their families and to make money.

It’s extremely difficult to make a definition for terrorism because there are a lot of opposing views and a lot of different countries do no agree to one universal definition of terrorism. Each country with terrorists has a different view of what they see terrorist organizations. It’s hard to find on universal definition because of the disparity between countries.

The International Criminal Court (ICC), governed by the Rome Statute, is the first permanent, treaty based, international criminal court established to help end impunity for the perpetrators of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community.

Eurojust- This is the European union court, one court for the European union crimes. 

The US Patriot Act means “Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Requires to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism.” This act made it easier for the FBI to conduct secret searches, monitor phone calls and emails and to obtain bank records and other personal documents in connection to terrorism investigations. Gives the FBI unlimited access to peoples information who are believed to be terrorists. As well there would not be an criminal or civil legal action given to persons who degrade or humiliate the detainees. Gave the FBI complete free-rein to capture believed terrorists.