Term
| How violent are “we” as a city (Toronto) and country, relative to other countries [homocide rates]? Are we living in “violent times”? |
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Definition
We are not living in violent time – by and large societies are getting better
Historically, cruelty is on the decline, and we have become more civilized
-Homicide rates were low in the 60s, increased in the 80s and are now almost as low as the 60s again, but youth violence is increasing in Canada |
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Term
Why might Canada be less violent than the US?
Evidence? (4 marks/points) |
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Definition
-In Canada there is less disparity between the rich and the poor (average wealth and standard of living)
-When rewards are perceived as inequitably distributed, those at the bottom feel they have little to loose by engaging in dangerous behaviour rsp. Engaging in escalated tactics
-As gap increases (gini index), homicide rates increase (.8 correlation!)
-Most homocide is manslaughter, a fight between two males involving status competition |
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Term
| General rates for bullying & victimization in Canada. |
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Definition
-Canada ranked 9th& 10th out of 35 countries on
rates of bullying and victimization (WHO)
-13 year olds: 17% boys and 11% girls physically bullied other frequently
-victimization: 18% boys, 15% girls |
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Term
What are the effects of bullying on both the bully
and the victim (provide two pieces of evidence
for each)? |
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Definition
Bullies have psychosocial difficulties
-Alcohol use is 5x more likely
-Drug use is 7x more likely
-In longitudinal studies, high risk for delinquency and subsequent criminal behaviour
Mental health of victims
-1.3-3.4x more likely headaches and stomach aches
-1-6x more likely to have depressive symptoms
-academic difficulties |
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Term
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Definition
Physical: hit/punched, pushed
-Boys are studied exclusively and women seen as non-aggressive
Retaliation/social: social exclusion, gossiping
-Fits with women as having a greater relational/interdependent self |
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Term
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Definition
REACTIVE: reacting/retaliation to something
-quick reaction, unplanned
PROACTIVE: aggressing to get what you want
-more psychopathic
-cool, calm, collected
-Even if it is in retaliation, it was PLANNED |
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Term
| Describe Berkowitz’s Revised Frustration-Aggression hypothesis |
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Definition
-Frustration from a blocked goal (perceived) attack- on are the triggers for anger
-this will put the individual in a mood state to aggress- this is reinforced by existing habits
-Aggressive habits (summative) and Cues in the environment can promote it can facilitate anger |
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Term
| Briefly describe aggression using a social learning model including the notion of coercive family environments. How are coercive behaviors said to be negatively reinforced? |
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Definition
-Modeling: children model behaviour (E.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll and Children may model the violence they see on TV)
-aggressive behaviour is reinforced
-Positive: if aggressive actions get you what you want you are reinforced by getting what you want
-Negative (removal of negative stimulus): hitting someone to get kicked out of school because you don’t like school
-coercive home environment: a home in which family members often annoy one another and use aggressive/antisocial tactics as a method of coping with adverse experiences |
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Term
| Diagram and explain Patterson’s developmental model of chronic antisocial behavior. |
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Definition
-Aggressive children and parents train each other
-Coercive home environment: family members annoy one another and use anti-social behaviour tactics as a method of coping
-Negative reinforcement of coercive behaviour
-Aggressive kids also raise aggressive parents
-Temperamental impulsivity (highly active) kids cause their parents to become exhausted
-Poor parental discipline and monitoring cause children to have conduct disorders and a hostile attributional bias
-This causes rejection by peers & academic failure
-This causes the child to commit to a deviant peer group (we all need to belong)
-Which leads to delinquency |
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Term
| Describe three negative parenting risk factors for childhood aggression. |
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Definition
(1) Harsh parenting predicts reactive aggression
-Cold and rejecting parents with low empathy
-Erratic use of power-assertive discipline (esp. physical punishment modeling)
-This is only applicable in western families
(2) Tolerant of their child’s aggression: few opportunities for child to control aggressive impulses
-Parents who promote violence (e.g. in sports)
(3) Lack of parental monitoring |
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Term
| What view of human nature & aggression did developmental psychologists contribute to on the topic of aggression (3 marks)? |
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Definition
-aggression is not learned, it is human nature. we actually learn to inhibit aggression and find better problem solving strategies
-aggression is a solution to a problem
-emotional regulation and problem solving are alternatives to acting out aggressively |
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Term
| What is the evidence that aggression is not learned (2 marks)? |
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Definition
-aggression peaks at age 2-3 years and then lessens as children are socialized
-this contrasts to social learning theory where aggression is learned over time |
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Term
| Describe 4 identified developmental pathways pertaining to aggression (4 marks). |
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Definition
-High-persistence trajectory - start out very aggressive and remain this way
-High-desister trajectory - start out very aggressive and decline
-Moderate-desister trajectory - start out moderately aggressive and decline
-No-problem trajectory - start out low and remain |
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Term
What is the form and function of this example?
“if others upset me, I often tell my friends to stop linking them” |
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Definition
Function - Reactive: there is an attack, others are doing something to me
Form - Relational |
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Term
What is the form and function of this example?
“I often start fights to get what I want” |
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Definition
Function – proactive: aggressing to get what you want
Form - physical |
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Term
| One day at school, Josh gets up real quick from the table and spills paint all over Frank's art project. Frank thinks to himself, "I'll teach that little creep to be more careful" and he consciously plans an aggressive means of getting back at Josh for his carelessness. From the perspective of Dodge's social information-processing theory of aggression, Frank would be classified as: |
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Definition
| It is proactive because it said that Frank "Consciously planned..." to retaliate - anything premeditated is proactive (meaning that aggression is for the purpose of achieving a goal - in this case 'getting back at him |
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Term
| Identify and describe the two functions of aggression. How are these related to the two functions of aggression previously discussed. |
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Definition
(1) Co-opt resources of others (related to proactive aggression)
-Competition for limited resources and status
-Humans stockpile more than any other species
-we have the ability to recall past scarcity and become anxious over future scarcity
-we are able to extend ourselves through time
-Children commonly fight over access to toys and territory
(2) • Defense (related to reactive) in order to negotiate status and power hierarchies
-Ritualized aggression e.g. street boxing
-Status challenges are viewed as a threat, especially by those insecure in their status, resulting in reactive aggression
-Status is ultimately about gaining progeny/sex |
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Term
| Briefly describe Moffitt’s dual pathway model. What is meant by “cumulative consequences”? |
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Definition
Pathway 1: life course persistent
-Problems arise from neuropsychological (frontal lobe) difficulties related to impulse control and affect regulation
-Cumulative consequences include peer rejection, poor school, addiction, teen pregnancy, criminal record
Pathway 2: late onset (adolescent limited)
-More socially determined
-“acting out” through delinquency, drinking, sexual risk-taking, behaviour of teens is somewhat normative |
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Term
| What social-information processing biases do proactive aggressors display? (Be specific in identifying a particular information processing step or level with each subtype of aggression |
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Definition
Proactive aggressors:
-Steps 4 (generate problem solving strategies) & 5 (evaluate the effectiveness of strategies and select a response)
-one could evaluate aggressive solutions as overly positive & successful
-They overestimate the effectiveness of aggressive strategies |
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Term
-Give an examples of a stage 2/reactive “vignette” to illustrate how aggressive thinking can be assessed
-How would a reactive aggressor answer the question that goes with the reactive story |
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Definition
“A guy is taking to a girl he likes after school. He is just about to ask her on a date when some other kids pulls a fire alarm down the hall. Everyone runs out and he looses his opportunity to ask her out.”
Question: was the guy who pulled the fire alarm
being mean [on purpose]? |
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Term
-Give an examples of a stage 4&5/proactive “vignette” to illustrate how aggressive thinking can be assessed
-How would a proactive aggressor answer the proactive story |
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Definition
You are listening to your Walkman [a dated
example] when your batteries go dead. There is
another person not far off whose batteries appear
to be OK.
-Question: What do you do?
-A proactive aggressor would simply say, “take his batteries.. That’s no brainer. He has them, and I don’t.” (they over-estimate the effectiveness of aggressive strategies and don’t think about the negative consequences … of getting caught for example) |
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Term
| What temperamental attributes are potentially associated with the more aggressive toddlers? |
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Definition
1. early “difficult temperament” - they get distressed and upset easily, more reactive kids who evoke negative reactions from their peers, which invite aggressive retaliations. They then associate with other aggressive children, creating an aggressive environmental niche
2. callous/unemotional traits - more proactive aggression, fledgling psychopaths, they lack empathy |
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Term
Describe the sociometric technique most typically used to
determine peer acceptance (sociometric popularity) |
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Definition
-Students were asked to pick 3 students in your class that you like the most and that you like to spend time with
-Pick 3 students that you like the least/don’t want to spend time with |
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Term
-Label and describe the four categories of peer acceptance
-Describe the stability of each and and the behavioral correlates of peer acceptance |
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Definition
Neglected
-This category is not stable
-ignored is better than rejected; likely to attain more favourable status later
-do not make many attempts to enter play groups
Rejected
-Their status is stable over time
-rejectee’s negative behaviors are attributed to internal attributes, vs. popular/average get benefit of the doubt
-This social-cognitive bias + their annoying behaviors results in rejection
-alienate peers by using aggressive tactics
-hostile attribution bias, overestimate their social standing
Popular (Liked)
-Their status tends to remain the same
-accepted children are friendly, co-operative, compassionate, pro-social, non-disruptive
Controversial
-60% changed their status – this is not stable
-display some popular characteristics (cooperation, high sociability) AND negative behaviors (aggression, disruptiveness)
-may not be well liked by many peers but “popular” based on quantity of peer interactions |
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Term
| What predicts peer rejection (6)? |
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Definition
(1) They may have a temperament which is not condusive
-Irritable-impulsive
-Passive and inhibited
(2) Cognitive skills
-They have poor role taking (e.g. theory of mind)
-Higher IQs are associated with popular, average, neglected
(3) Physical attributes: facial attractiveness – this may be a self-fulfilling prophecy
(4) Body building: preference for mesomorphs, athletic and muscular
(5) Aggressive Rejected: hostile, delinquency, and conduct problems
(6)Withdrawn Rejected: prone to low self-esteem, inhibition & depression, often victims |
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Term
| How does peer acceptance (textbook popular) differ from “perceived popularity” (as discussed in class)? |
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Definition
Popular 2: get a lot of votes for being popular and few votes for being unpopular. Unpopular is the opposite. Lots of votes for being unpopular and few votes for being popular.
Popular 2 doesn't have the 4 categories like popular 1 does. Its just high or low in popularity, instead of liked vs. not liked. |
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Term
| Briefly describe each of the stages in Dunphy’s (1963) classic developmental model of sociability. |
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Definition
-Beginning in early childhood children associate with same sex peers.
-In middle childhood same sex cliques form, that is peer groups of approximately 3-7 children who socialize regularly.
-Same sex cliques later in childhood merge to form mixed sex cliques, the same sex clique serving as a secure vase through which to begin associating with the opposite sex.
-Mixed sex cliques later lead to mixed sex crowds, large groups of adolescents who share the same values but do not necessarily associate.
-These mixed sex crowds provide access to partners paving the way to adolescent heterosexual relationships. These relationships establishe the foundation for later long term committed relationships in which children are raised. |
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Term
| What social-information processing biases do reactive aggressors display? (Be specific in identifying a particular information processing step or level with each subtype of aggression) |
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Definition
Reactive aggressors:
-Problems with Step 2-interpretation of social cues
-one could misperceive something as intended to hurt you, and so view it as a threat or attack
-Model of other as hostile - more likely to search for and find consistent clues, attribute hostile intent, get angry and retaliate
-hostile attribution bias: tendency to view harm done under ambiguous circumstances as having stemmed from a hostile intent on the part of the harm-doer |
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Term
| what is the late-onset (adolescent-limited) trajectory? |
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Definition
| individuals who become more aggressive for a limited time during adolescence after a non=aggressive childhood |
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Term
| What is the relationship between social status and sexuality in non-human primate species? |
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Definition
-hierarchies are important to many species- especially though that are sexually dimorphic
-in non-human primates those in dominance positions obtain greater access to finite resources
-high status is associated with greater number of copulations and offspring for both males and females (status is about sex)
-males and females compete by making themselves more appealing and derogating the competition to attract partners |
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Term
| The human species is said to be somewhat “sexually dimorphic”. What does the expression mean? How so? |
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Definition
-sexual dimorphism: males are larger, more combative, slower to mature, and have a lower life expectancy (higher risk-taking and less anxiety) compared to females
-the human species is mildly polygamous due to sexual dimorphism |
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Term
| How do males and females self-descriptions differ on the interpersonal circle? That is, describe the relevant quadrants, including a mention of the trait terms found there. |
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Definition
-The four quadrants: agency / communion
-women score highest in "Friendly-submissive"
-males tend to be the opposite "cold-dominnant" |
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Term
| Identify three characteristics that are associated with social dominance for both males and females. |
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Definition
Males: confidence, lack of anxious reactivity, larger physical
size, pubertal maturation (earlier), athleticism, resource-monopolization, conversational influence, erect posture, stylish dress, physical attractiveness, higher SES, better academic performance, higher interpersonal skills
Females: High ranking females are more popular, more likely sexual, earlier first sex, more active dating life, greater quantity and quality of male partners |
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Term
| Describe the three main results of Princeton & Cillessen (2003) |
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Definition
reputational aggression: attempts to damage another person’s social reputation
(1) linear relationship between popularity (2) and reputational aggression, but using a non-linear line: those low in popularity are also using a small amount of relational aggression
(2) those low in popularity (2) were more likely to use proactive aggression (reactive, unself-regulated, aggressive individuals are not “cool”)
(3) those high in popularity (2) were more likely to use proactive aggression |
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Term
| Schwartz (2006). What was the rationale for the study? |
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Definition
-Academic success is an important predictor of well-being and success beyond high school
-Academic engagement lead to academic success
-Popularity (2) and academic achievement goals may conflict
-Popularity (2) requires compatibility with behavioural norms of the peer group
-Academic engagement is supported by attendance, class participation and leads to academic achievement and behaviour that supports classroom performance (attending, engaging)
-The “popularity trap” - developing a social reputation to be popular |
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Term
| What are meant by the term social structure. How do males and females differ? (Make one point in elaboration.) |
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Definition
Males: boys tend to form groups
Females: girls form dyads more than do boys
-Girls value close relationships and use more relational aggression
-They want to spend longer times with closer friends |
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Term
| What are meant by the term social density. How do males and females differ? (Make one point in elaboration.) |
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Definition
Males: guy friends tend to all know each other
Females: girls tend to know girls, but the friends may not know each other |
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Term
| What are meant by the term social content. How do males and females differ? (Make one point in elaboration.) |
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Definition
Males: have more rough play, and involved in more organized play
Females: girls are more communal and prosocial in their behaviour
-Girl relationships involve more social conversation and self-disclosure in terms of time involved |
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Term
Schwartz (2006).
Describe the three main results. (Be sure to explain in terms of “moderation” effects) |
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Definition
-Moderated relationship: one in which the relationship between variables is determined by the moderating variables
-Changes in popular (1) were not associated with changes in absenteeism (or GPA) (Popular (1) typically do not associate with deviant peers)
-Changes in popular (2) did predict school absenteeism over time but ONLY if they associated with an aggressive peer group
-Changes in popular (2) did predict dropping school GPA, but ONLY if they associated with aggressive peers |
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Term
| Discuss the rationale for the Wreford & Hennig study. |
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Definition
-Rationale: inspired by the article: is she really just a friend
-Benefits and risks of cross-sex friends
-Modern cultures do not segregate the sexes (vs. collective culture)
-With women’s entry into the workplace- there is increased cross-sex interaction
-Infidelity is the 1st and 2nd reason for divorce
-Feeling that it is inappropriate to place boundaries on their partner
-Questions: does one place boundaries? What is the function of the boundaries? |
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Term
| Briefly discuss the Wreford & Hennig study in light of Dunphy’s (1963) developmental model of peer relationship formation. |
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Definition
-As relationships become more committed, more boundaries may become established
-all of Dunphy's stages lead to "stable pair-bonds" ... you need to have a stable family/marital relation that stays together long enough to ensure the children safely make it out of the nest
-as your relationship become and move to more long terms relations, greater discussion of and implementation of boundaries will arise |
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Term
| Identify and discuss (3) main summary results of the Wreford & Hennig study. |
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Definition
(1) 3rd year students spend a lot of time ecommunicating with cross-sex friends (M=12 hours/week)
-regardless of whether in a current relationship
(2) Conversation content predicts physical cheating in the past and current relationship
-Flirting predicts cheating in a current relationship
-Give/get relationship advice predicts past cheating
-Recalling past intimate experiences predicts past and current cheating
(3) A large number of (30-40%) of 3rd year students have at least one cross-sex friend who is an ex
-Those in a current relationship have more |
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Term
| Describe the three descriptive facts concerning sexual-social development and how these result in a "maturity gap"? |
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Definition
(1) Youth are biologically maturing earlier (with menarche being 1 year earlier
(2) People are getting married later: This creates a large gap which was previously non-existent. This “maturity gap” is known as adolescence. In this stage individuals proceed through a series of largely monogamous relationships (and more casual ones). Sexual experimentation is viewed as desirable
(3) People are having sex soon after puberty (it has always been this way). |
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Term
| Discuss the function of dating in terms of the two stage-salient tasks of adolescence. |
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Definition
(1) Establishing Identity: Who am I, what do I want to become, knowing what one wants in life, including partner preferences
(2) Establishing the relational foundations needed for long-term romantic relationships in which children are born (family). Aim: continue gene line (not always the case).
-30% in early adolescence
-70% in late adolescence
-most have an had an on-going relationship by late adolescence
-Negative relationships create broken trust, poor partner choices, learn that relationships are dangerous and that oneself is unlovable
-For every good relationship, you are likely to have a better one the next time, positive relationships show us that others are trustworthy and oneself is worthy of being love
-percentages of reported premarital sexual intercourse dropped slightly in the 1980s due to STD fears
These cannot be separated. A stable, clear identity is needed to know what you want. |
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Term
| Discuss 1-2 reasons feminists have suggested the hookup culture is not healthy for women (include rates). |
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Definition
(1) The orgasm gap: The 1st time with a partner woman orgasm 32% as often as men, With partner repetition it rises to 49%
(2) Women may be more focused on establishing relationships and good reputation |
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Term
| Briefly describe the different forms of love described by Sternberg’s model. (Be sure to include empty love) |
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Definition
(1) Companionate love: intimacy and commitment
(2) Fatuous Love: passion and commitment
(3) Romantic love: intimacy and passion
(4) Consummate love: intimacy and passion and commitment (western ideal)
OTHER:
Friendship: intimacy
Empty love: commitment
Infatuation: passion |
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Term
| What are the 3 main functions of marriage and the family? |
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Definition
(1) Provides stable family unit in which children acquire knowledge about their society’s rules
(2) Provides an economic partnership that integrates child rearing, performance of household tasks, and earning an income into one family unit
(3) Defines inheritance rights for family property- historically even more so |
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Term
Reading: Why Chinese mothers are superior
Describe the three big differences between Chinese and western parental mind-sets. |
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Definition
-Western society values self-esteem highly
-Chinese children feel they owe their parents everything as the parents have invested so much in their children
-Parents believe they know what’s best for their children |
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Term
| Describe the measurement of attachment as involving (2) basic aspects. Describe these and how they fit with assessment in the strange situation. |
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Definition
(1) Secure base: exploration in presence of attachment figure (infant uses the parent as a base for exploration)
(2) Safe haven: comfort seeking- brief separations and encounters with strangers cause stress, reunion episodes (to see if infant is comforted by parent and derives comfort) |
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Term
| There is an analogous logic in assessing parent-child attachment in the SSn, and assessing adult attachment on the AAI. Discuss for secure attachment in terms of the secure base concepts. |
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Definition
-(Infant) Exploration or external world from an external secure base (parent)
-(Adult) Exploration of internal world, of one’s internal representations of self, other, and relation between the two (internal working model) |
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Term
| There is an analogous logic in assessing parent-child attachment in the SSn, and assessing adult attachment on the AAI. Discuss for secure attachment in terms of the safe haven concepts. |
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Definition
-In face of a stressor, return to secure base (parent) for soothing (safe haven)
-In face of a stressor, return to oneself as secure base for self-soothing, but ALSO to significant others who soothe us (able to be dependent, comfortable with this) |
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Term
| Describe Level (5) – Belief-Desire theory of mind |
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Definition
-Maxi task: looking for chocolate in the cupboard
-Smarties task: 3 year olds do not have a sense that people have a private understanding
-Sticker and monkey game where children lie
-I know that what you believe may not be the same as what I believe
-Your beliefs may be wrong, compared to what I know now |
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